ALTERNATIVE Amazos
EVOLVED FROM Neolithic hunter-fishers
COUNTRY Armenia / Georgia / Azerbaijan / Russia / Syria
/ Iraq / Ireland / England / Brazil
LANDMARKS Mount Hermon / Mediterranean / Atlantic /
Caucasus / Black Sea / Caspian Sea / Ares Island
/ Don River / Amazon River / Wash
SITES Troy / Okeano / Island of Women / Briar Hill,
Bottisham
AGE Bronze / Iron
DATES BC 21st c / BC 13th c / BC 330 / BC 3rd c /
AD 16th c
DEITIES male fertility god / Ev-ah
LEADERS Cessair / Albina / Penthesileia / Hippolyta /
Thalestris
SIGNATURE Nordic-Alpine female horse warriors / archers /
antlered animals / two-handed swords / javelins
/ composite bows / scale armor trousers / horse
armor / iron plated half-circle shields / barrow
grave
SEE ALSO Fomorii / Gallic / Greek / Neolithic
REMARKS The Amazons were a society of female warriors
who seem to have their roots in the very early eastern
Bronze Age and it was the search for tin and copper,
ingredients of bronze, that help spread their culture
around the world.
From the earliest Bronze Age and into the Iron Age,
the Amazons developed into keen sailors and fierce horse
warriors who were experts with composite bows, swords,
javelins, axes, clubs and shields. Some of their two-
handed swords were known to be 4 feet (1.2 m) long. They
wore leather tunics with iron scales and used oval and
half-circle shields covered with iron plates. It was said
that the Amazons sometimes rode animals with antlers,
possibly horses with antlered armor or reindeer. They
practiced horse sacrifice on the island of Ares.
Tanaitis was the name given to Amazon warriors who
lived on the shores of the Tanais (Don) river in southern
Russia. The Amazon warriors buried their dead with their
weapons. There are grave sites of female warriors in
Russia near the Don river that have yielded grave goods of
scaled trousers, horse armor and composite bows. These may
have been been the graves of Amazons or female Sarmatian
warriors.
Amazon society would not permit their warriors to
marry until they had three kills to their credit. When
they bore children, the mothers stunted the right breast of
the females by cauterising it. For this they received the
Greek name Amazos (without a breast). They were described
as being very tall, white-skinned and wearing their blond
hair long and twisted over their heads.
Amazons were also reputed to lived on an island in the
Atlantic called Okeano (Ocean) where they venerated a male
love god. Every year they performed a sacrifice that
revolved around rethatching the roof of the love god's
temple. The ritual demanded that the roof be thatched in a
single day. The speed of work ensured that sooner or later
one of the women would drop her bundle of straw, thereby
being chosen for sacrifice to the love god. The sacrifice
was literally torn to pieces by the other women who had
worked themselves into a frenzy (Bacclitterly). Each
carried a part of the sacrifice around the temple while
chanting EV-AH. (This term may be related to Evia (Eve) the
female serpent, symbol of the lunar phases). When the fury
passed, they would finish the roof.
Because no man was allowed into the territory of the
Amazons, they would leave to search out suitable male
warriors to sire their children and then return to the
island. Those children born female were kept and those
born male were returned to their fathers or sacrificed.
In BC 21st century, Cessair landed in Ireland with
fifty warrior women and three men, 40 days before the
Deluge which supposedly drowned all. This account was an
attempt by the scribes to fit the Amazons into the Judaeo-
Christian mythology. Nevertheless it seems evident that
her followers did survive and that their descendants became
known as the Fomorii, a predominantly female society that
lived, among other places, on an island in the Atlantic
called Tor Innis.
Albina, another Amazon chieftain, landed on the shores
of England with a boatload of female warriors. Six other
known Amazon warrior chieftains were Marpesia, Lampeto,
Sinope, Orithyia, Antiope and Penthesileia.
In BC 13th century Penthesileia led her warriors in
the Trojan War which Wilkens places around the Wash in
England. Penthesileia was killed in combat by Achilles.
Amazons also fought for the Mycenaeans (Achaeans) during
the Trojan War and helped in the defeat of Troy. The
Amazons of Britain must predate the Trojan War because
mentioned in Homer's tales is the Mound of Batieia, also
known as the Barrow of Myrine (Light of Step) the Amazon,
at the site of Briar Hill in present-day Bottisham. The
ancient Celtic war god Ares sired Hippolyta, who became an
Amazon chieftain. She was killed by Hercules who then
stole her girdle.
Amazon is an Armenian word meaning moon women. There
were Amazon tribes south of the Caucasus Mountains between
the Black and Caspian Seas. In BC 330 the great chieftain
Thalestris visited Alexander of Macedonia when he was on
his campaign to Persia. She entered his camp with 300
fully-armored female horse warriors and announced that as
she was the greatest of female warriors and she had heard
that he was the greatest of male warriors, she wanted a
child by him.
In BC 3rd century, when the Gallic warriors from
France were invading Turkey, their force contained large
numbers of female warriors. The ancient stories of Ireland
make many references to female super-warriors and combat
instructors who lived in Scotland and the surrounding
islands. Irish mythology also refers to places like the
Island of Women or the Land of the Women. As late as AD
16th century, records mention Francisco de Orellana of
Spain encountering blonde warrior women in Brazil at the
mouth of the Amazon river.
Greek, Roman and Christian writers have tried their
hardest to relegate the Amazons to a position of mere
fiction, but there has been enough solid evidence that has
surived the ages to show that they were indeed a real
society: a society without men.
NAME Aquitani
ALTERNATIVE Acquitani
EVOLVED FROM Ligurian / Tartessian / Urnfield / Hallstatt /
Iberian / Belgae
COUNTRY France
TERRITORY Gaul / Aquitanica
LANDMARKS Bay of Biscay / Garonne / Pyrenees
AGE Neolithic / Bronze / Iron
DATES BC 2nd mill / BC 12th c / BC 11th-8th c / BC 6th
c / BC 5th c / BC 3rd c / BC 1st c / BC 56 / BC
27-AD 14
SIGNATURE multi-cultural / soldurii / miners
SEE ALSO Aremorican / Belgae / Celtic / Cimmerian /
Gallic / Hallstatt / Iberian / Ligurian /
Tartessian / Urnfield
REMARKS It is believed that Aquitanica means "the land
by the water" and the name derives from the Aquitani tribe
who were most likely Tartessian. The predominantly-Celtic
Aquitani culture evolved from a fusion of people who
settled the area: Ligurian (BC 2nd millenium), Tartessian
(BC 12th century), late Urnfield and Cimmerian (BC 11th-8th
century), early Hallstatt (BC 6th century), Iberian (BC 5th
century) and Belgae (BC 3rd century).
The territory of Aquitanica was separated from the
Gallic tribes by the Garonne river and bounded by the Bay
of Biscay on the west and the Pyrenees to the south. There
were numerous copper mines in the territory and the
Aquitani were known to be skilful miners, a trait that was
common with Tartessian, Urnfield and Hallstatt cultures.
The Aquitani had a system whereby a group of warriors
called soldurii would pledge their lives to a leader. They
would then share the fate of that warrior. When the leader
went into battle the soldurii would follow, and if they won
they all shared in the spoils of battle. But if their
leader died they would share that fate as well, either
fighting to the death in the combat or committing suicide.
When Caesar arrived in Gaul during BC 1st century
there were four main cultural groups living there: the
Aquitani, the Aremorican, the Gallic and the Belgae. In BC
56 Caesar invaded the territory of Aquitanica. The tribes
of this area had beaten off a sizable Roman army a number
of years earlier and let the upcoming battle rest entirely
on the shoulders of the Sontiates tribe. After 6 years of
unorganized fighting, the Aquitani along with the other
three cultures of Gaul were totally defeated. By the time
of Augustus (BC 27 - AD 14), the Roman territory of Greater
Aquitania had expanded northeast to the Loire and the
Rhône.
NAME Aremorican
ALTERNATIVE Armorican / Armorican Barrow
EVOLVED FROM Bell Beaker / Kurgan / Battle Axe / Goidel /
Ligurian / Unetice / Tumulus / Pictish /
Urnfield / Hallstatt / La Tčne
COUNTRY France
REGION Normandy / Brittany
TERRITORY Gaul / Aremorica
LANDMARKS Seine / Garonne / lower Loire
SITES Ballon
AGE Neolithic / Chalcolithic / Bronze
DATES BC 3400 / BC 2300 / BC 2200 / BC 2nd mill /
BC 1800-1200 / BC 15th-13th c / BC 1100 / BC
11th-8th c / BC 9th c / BC 6th c / BC 4th c / BC
1st c / BC 57 / AD 5th c / AD 845
SIGNATURE multi-cultural / round barrows / standing stones
/ shipping
SEE ALSO Aquitani / Battle Axe / Belgae / Bell Beaker /
Celtic / Cimmerian / Goidel / Hallstatt / Kurgan
/ La Tčne / Ligurian / Neolithic / Pictish /
Unetice / Urnfield / Tumulus / Wessex
REMARKS The name Aremorica is a Celtic word which means
"country by the sea". The Neolithic Bell Beaker People
were established in Aremorican by BC 3400, followed by an
influx of people of the Chalcolithic Kurgan and Battle Axe
cultures who were well established in western Europe by BC
2300.
It is thought that some of the standing stones erected
by the early Bronze Age Aremoricans were used to mark their
tin deposits. They buried their dead with their wealth in
round barrows (tumuli) similar to those of the Wessex,
Unetice and Goidel cultures.
Aremorica was then settled and influenced by even more
people as the Goidel searched for suitable cattle country
sometime after BC 2200 on their way south. The Ligurian
tribes began to move into the area by BC 2nd millenium and
the Unetice-Tumulus warriors arrived between BC 1800 and BC
1200; Pictish tribes began to arrive around BC 15th-13th
century. The Urnfield culture influenced Aremorica around
BC 1100 as warriors passed through on their southern
expansion, the Cimmerian culture sometime between BC 11th-
8th century, the Hallstatt culture arriving by BC 9th
century, and the La Tčne culture in BC 6th century.
In BC 6th century warriors of the Pictish tribes, the
predominant people of Aremorica, left for England taking
the La Tčne A culture with them. By BC 4th century,
incoming tribes of Germani into western Gaul pushed the
southern border of Belgica to the Seine which became the
northern border of Aremorica.
When Caesar arrived in Gaul during BC 1st century
there were four main cultural groups living there: the
Aremorican, Belgae, Gallic, and Aquitani. Aremorican
tribes held a territory roughly defined by the Loire and
Seine rivers and the Atlantic.
In the spring of BC 57, Caesar invaded the territory
of Aremorica because he was very concerned about their
fleets of ocean-going ships. The Veneti tribe of Aremorica
controlled the trade between Gaul and Britain, moving
people and goods between the two territories. The Romans
destroyed their fleet of 220 ships, which ended the threat
of the Aremoricans for a while.
The Aremoricans were never subdued by the Romans and
they continued their trade with Ireland, Britain, the
Channel Islands and the rest of Gaul. After the collapse
of the Roman Empire in AD 5th century Celts from Britain
settled among the local inhabitants and this area
eventually became known as Brittany.
The Celts of Brittany managed to retain their culture
and freedom when they defeated the French during the battle
of Ballon on Nov 22nd in AD 845. The language of the
Bretons is Brythonic and is similar to modern Cornish and
Welsh.
NAME Argaric
EVOLVED FROM Ligurian
COUNTRY Spain
REGION Catalonia / Andulucía / Almeria
LANDMARKS Antas river / Mediterranean
CENTERS El Argar
AGE Bronze
DATES BC 2000 / BC 1700 / BC 1400 / BC 1200
SIGNATURE metal-working / single-grave tumulus / tattoos /
traders / ochre / black-fire ceramics / urns /
halberds / diadems / spiral motif / bronze leaf
sword
SEE ALSO Ligurian / Unetice
REMARKS The grave goods of the Argaric people have much
in common with those of the Unetice culture of Bohemia.
Both cultures were influenced by people of the Ligurian
culture around the same time.
The site of El Argar sat on a plateau 1000 x 330 ft
(300x90 m) on the Rio Antas in southeastern Spain, 7 mi
(12 km) from the sea. The site, already known for its gold
and silver, developed a bronze industry around BC 2000. El
Argar was the largest and most important of some forty
other fortified villages that were within a 50 mi (75 km)
length along the coast. By BC 1700, the community was a
well-defended hillfort.
Argaric women wore silver diadems, spirals and rolled
silver wire necklaces. The diadem was a band which fit
around the head with a pallette shape that hung down or
pointed up, possibly to indicate married status, similar to
the practice in some present-day tribes in different parts
of the world. The women's grave goods also contained
copper tools and little awls for sewing or tattooing.
Argaric warriors carried large bronze leaf-shaped
thrusting swords rivetted to their handles. They used the
very popular Bronze Age weapon the halberd, some of which
were highly decorated with gold. Later, the halberd was
replaced with the spear. Tools such as axes and chisels
were also made from bronze.
The people of El Argar produced elegant pottery that
was exceedingly well fired. They designed pedestalled
goblets, chalices, vases, bowls and vats, often finished
with a polished black fire.
The Argaric culture buried their dead in a number of
different ways. The grave sites were situated nearby or
underneath their own dwellings. They used single grave
cists with the body in a contracted position, 2 urns
positioned mouth-to-mouth, double graves with a male and
female or a mother and child. The most popular style of
the burial was to put the body head first into a 28-inch-
high (70 cm) clay vessel; sometimes the bodies were
defleshed first. Another style of burial was to cover the
body with powdered ochre and bury it in a small chest or
33-inch (85 cm) grave marked with a tumulus. This style
was also found in the Unetice culture of Bohemia but it was
used mostly in the Near East during the early Bronze Age.
The variety of burial styles suggests the coexistence of
people from more than one culture.
From the over 1000 burials that have been excavated,
the contents suggest that the Argaric culture had trade
with Malta, Sardinia and the Balearic Islands. Other goods
suggest trade with Brittany, other parts of France and
northern Italy. Burial goods included flint and polished
stone, copper, bronze, gold, blue glass from the east and,
most typically, silver objects. By BC 1400 El Argar was in
decline and by BC 1200 the community no longer existed.
NAME Babylonian
ALTERNATIVE Neo Babylonia / Chaldaean Babylonia
EVOLVED FROM Akkad / Sumer
COUNTRY Iraq
TERRITORY Babylonia
LANDMARKS Euphrates / Tigris
SITES Tower of Babel (Gates of God)
CENTERS Babylon (Babili/Babilani)
AGE early Bronze
DATES BC 3rd mill / BC 2600-2500 / BC 2320 / BC 21st-
20th c / BC 1900 / BC 1600 / BC 1100 / BC 625 /
BC 586 / BC 538
DEITIES Bel {Baal} (Beel/Belenos) / Belit
SIGNATURE city-state / cuneiform writing / ziggurat
SEE ALSO Goidel / Phoenician
REMARKS The city of Babylon was south of modern-day
Bagdad in Iraq. Babylon was a planned city of good
streets, temples, palaces and fine homes. It was built on
both sides of the Euphrates and was named for its chief
deity Bel {Baal} (possessor or lord). In honor of their
god a ziggurat, The Tower of Babel (Gates of God), was
constructed in BC 21-20th century. Bel's consort was Nin-
har-sag, also known as Belit, probably a fish goddess.
This was the tower that Rifath Scot, father of the
Scotic (Gaelic) language, helped build. From him came the
Goidels.
The territory was defined by the Tigris and Euphrates
rivers which flowed from the Armenian mountains. The
country was flat farmland criss-crossed by canals and
drainage systems. Flooding was an annual occurrence, so
the construction and repair of the canals system was a
constant occupation.
In BC 3rd millennium, Semetic people began to migrate
into the territory of present-day Iraq and Syria from the
Persian Gulf because of disintegrating climatic conditions.
Some headed to the coast of the Mediterranean and evolved
into the Phoenicians, while others settled in the area
between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Here they built
many city-states such as Ebla which was established by BC
2600-2500. The city-states spent much of their time
warring and taking turns trying to rule the others.
In BC 2320 the Sumerian city-state of Erech (Ur/Uruk)
boasted an empire but this was destroyed by the Semites of
the city-state of Akkad. This was overthrown by the city
of Guti, then Ur then Isan, back to Ur, then to Larsa until
around BC 1900 the first Babylonian dynasty developed when
the city of Babylon became the center for the surrounding
tribes, making it the dominant city-state.
The Babylonian empire evolved from the Akkadian
culture in the north who were Semitic people and the
Sumerian culture in the south who were a non-Semitic people
from Arbria.
By BC 1600, Assyria began to dominate Babylonia and by
BC 1100, Babylon was a dependent of Assyria. In BC 625,
Babylon became known as Chaldaean Babylonia when a
Chaldaean king took over the rule. In BC 586 Babylon
conquered Jerusalem after destroying the temple but by BC
538 Babylon fell to the Persians, never to rise again.
NAME Basque
ALTERNATIVE Euskadi
EVOLVED FROM Neolithic / Urnfield / Iberian
COUNTRY France / Spain
REGION Pais Vasco (Euskadi)
TERRITORY Navarra / Gipuzkoa / Biskaia / Araba
LANDMARKS Pyrenees
AGE Paleolithic / Neolithic / Bronze / Iron
DATES BC 15000 / BC 8th c / BC 5th c
SIGNATURE Mediterranean-Alpine stock / communal ownership
/ highland / pastoral / animism / miners
SEE ALSO Berber / Cimmerian / Hallstatt / Iberian /
Neolithic / Urnfield
REMARKS The Basques believe their ancestors came to
Spain sometime around BC 15,000 as Cro-Magnon Man, and
settled in the area where they are today. Their language
is unrelated to other European languages, and seems to be
outside the Indo-European family group.
The Basques intermingled with Alpine round-heads
(Urnfield) from the north around BC 8th century and
Mediterranean long-heads of the south (Iberian) around BC
5th century but were strong enough to retain their own
language.
The tribes promoted communal ownership within the
family, and the head passed to the oldest offspring,
whether male or female. They practiced animism, which was
revealed in their dances and offerings to the dead. Their
religious guides were both male and female and did not
observe celibacy. They were a highland people who spilled
over into the lowlands around the Pyrenees. They were most
likely miners, herders or fishers living a pastoral life.
The Basques of today still hold competitions in stone-
dragging (oxen pull), tree-chopping, pole-throwing and
weight-lifting as well as the eloquent art of poetry-
reading. Their games resemble those of the highland Celts
which are still enjoyed in Scotland and Canada.
The modern-day archetype of a Basque is a medium head,
wide at the temples with pointed chin and a medium height
of 5˝ feet (1.7 m). They have the highest percentage of
Rh- blood (25-35 %) of any people in the world as well as a
high level of O type, as do the Berbers.
NAME Battle Axe
ALTERNATIVE Stone Battle Axe / Corded Ware / Single-Grave /
Globular Amphora / Boat-axe
EVOLVED FROM Neolithic hunter / Danubian / Kurgan
COUNTRY Ukraine / Russia / Poland / Germany / Denmark /
Norway / Sweden / Netherlands / Belgium / France
/ England
TERRITORY Gaul
LANDMARKS Baltic Sea / Rhine / North Sea
AGE Neolithic / Chalcolithic
DATES BC 4th mill / BC 3500 / BC 2300 / BC 2200
SIGNATURE Nordic-Mediterranean stock / stone battle axe /
communal grave / single grave / corded ware /
horse / wagons / Aryan language
SEE ALSO Bell Beaker / Danubian / Goidel / Kurgan /
Neolithic
REMARKS During BC 4th millenium, the Neolithic hunters
of northeastern Europe were influenced by the incoming
Neolithic farmers of the Danubian culture. In contrast
with the larger houses and communities of the Danubians the
people of the newly evolved culture had a preference for
small square houses in small villages. The new culture
retained their stone battle axe as a weapon and a symbol,
and practiced communal burial.
After BC 3500, tribes of the Chalcolithic Kurgan
culture from the Ukraine Steppes migrated across the
northern European lowlands. The Kurgan culture brought in
the concept of individuality, indicated by the single grave
with its reference to wealth and position. They also
brought the Aryan language and the use of the horse and
wagon. The fusion produced the Battle Axe culture which
quickly spread throughout northern Europe. By BC 2300,
they had already established themselves in Aremorica.
The Battle Axe people imprinted the image of ropes on
their ceramic wear as a form of decoration and were
therefore sometimes referred to as the Corded Ware people.
They developed a well-armed warrior with the mobility given
by horses and wagons. A number of the wagons have been
excavated in the Netherlands.
Around BC 2200 the cultures of the Battle Axe and Bell
Beaker met in the Rhine Valley. These two cultures had a
profound influence on the people who were to become known
as the Goidel.
EVOLVED FROM Neolithic hunters / Battle Axe / Kurgan / Goidel
Unetice-Tumulus / Pictish / Urnfield /
Hallstatt / Cimmerian / La Tčne / Germani
COUNTRY Netherlands / Belgium / France / Germany / Spain
/ Portugal / England
TERRITORY Gaul / Belgica
LANDMARKS Seine / Marne / Channel / Rhine
AGE Neolithic / Bronze / Iron
DATES BC 3500 / BC 2200 / BC 1800-1200 / BC 15th-13th
c / BC 1100 / BC 11th-8th / BC 9th c / BC 6th c
/ BC 400 / BC 4th c / BC 3rd c / BC 1st c / BC
57
DEITIES Bolga
SIGNATURE Nordic-Alpine stock / trousers / horse warriors
/ chariot warriors / farmers / iron plow /
decorated articles / minting of coins / thrown
pottery
SEE ALSO Aquitani / Aremorican / Battle Axe / Celtic /
Cimmerian / Galatian / Gallic / Germani /
Goidel / Hallstatt / Kurgan / La Tčne /
Neolithic / Pictish / Tumulus / Urnfield /
Unetice
REMARKS The Belgae culture of Caesar's time was similar
in many ways to that of the Germani to the northeast but
their language was Brythonic Celt, the same as that of the
other cultures living in Gaul. They are thought to have
been in their territory during the end of the Neolithic age
and probably mixed with the Battle Axe and/or Kurgan
cultures sometime after BC 3500. Later cultures influenced
or mixed with them as they passed through or settled in the
area, especially those of the Goidel who settled in the
Rhine valley around BC 2200, Unetice-Tumulus who came in
BC 1800-1200 with their horses and cattle, the Pictish
warriors, another horse-riding cattle people, around BC
15th-13th century, Urnfield (BC 1100), Cimmerian (BC 11th-
8th century), Hallstatt (BC 9th century), La Tčne (BC 6th
century) and Germani (BC 400).
The Belgae were predominantly Nordic and described as
tall, fair-skinned, horse-riding people with blond hair and
blue eyes. Both sexes wore cloaks and trousers. One style
of trousers had wide flapping legs, while the others were
tight-fitting and reached only to the upper calf. The
Belgae made use of the war chariot as well as having horse
warriors who used heavy iron slashing swords. They
believed that wine and other luxuries made warriors weak,
and had very little trade with the Greeks and Romans. Their
eponymous goddess was named Bolga, which could link them
with the early Firbolg or both with the river Volga.
In BC 4th century, the Belgae controlled territory on
both sides of the Rhine and as far south as the Seine.
During BC 3rd century, they were carrying the La Tčne II
culture into Illyria, Italy, Portugal, Spain and England as
they searched for new land and adventure. The La Tčne II
culture was known for its well-tempered swords with
engraved scabbards, beautiful jewelry and other items.
When the Belgae headed for Spain and Portugal, they
had to fight their way through the territory north of the
Pyrenees which had been isolating the Iberian peninsula
from the rest of the continent for two hundred years
because of the Iberians and others who had settled there.
The Belgae settled in many areas of the peninsula, settling
on their own or mixing with Iberians or Hallstatt Celts.
Although small in number, they were young, looking for land
to settle and carrying superior weapons.
The Belgae also settled in southeast England, mixing
with the local tribes who had similar ancestors and
developing a society of farmsteads, hillforts and open
villages based on grain farming. They brought with them
coin-making, thrown pottery, the iron plow and their war
chariot.
When Caesar arrived in Gaul during BC 1st century
there were four main cultural groups established: Belgae,
Gallic, Aremorican, and Aquitani. Gaul itself was a large
territory bounded by the sea coast, Rhine river, Alps,
Mediterranean and Pyrenees. It consisted of part of
present-day Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, and all of
Belgium, Luxembourg and France.
Caesar confused the Belgae and the Germani and did not
realize that the greater number of tribes on the right bank
of the Rhine were actually Belgae, and that the Germani
Gaesatae were also Belgae. In the spring of BC 57, Caesar
invaded the territory of Belgica. After 7 years of
unorganized resistance, the Belgae and the three other
cultures of Gaul were totally defeated.
NAME Bell Beaker
ALTERNATIVE Beaker People / Megalithic
EVOLVED FROM Neolithic hunter (Mediterranean)
COUNTRY Portugal / Netherlands / Scotland / England /
Ireland / Spain / France / Belgium / Denmark /
Germany / Czech / Morocco / Algeria
REGION Bohemia / Grampian / Strathclyde / Sicily /
Sardinia
TERRITORY Aremorica
LANDMARKS Tagus / Rhine
SITES Stonehenge / Nether Largie / Loanhead
CENTERS Vila Nova de Săo Pedro
AGE Neolithic / Copper / Bronze
DATES BC 3400 / BC 3200 / BC 3100 / BC 3000 / BC 2300
/ BC 19th c
SIGNATURE Mediterranean stock / megaliths / goldsmiths /
zoned beakers / flint & copper arrowheads /
wrist guards / collective burials / round barrow
single graves / urns / buttons / copper daggers
and javelin heads / exporters & traders
SEE ALSO Battle Axe / Goidel / Megalithic / Neolithic /
Unetice / Yamnaya
REMARKS The Bell Beaker culture was named after the
shape of the clay drinking vessels they made. The early
Bell Beaker People were Neolithic hunters who used the bow
and flint-tipped arrows.
Evidence has shown that Neolithic Bell Beaker culture
was in Aremorica by BC 3400 and the Netherlands by BC 3200.
They were well established in Scotland and England by BC
3100 and north of the Tagus in Portugal before BC 3000.
Bell Beaker pottery has been found at the stone calendars
of Nether Largie and Loanhead Stone Circle in Scotland and
Stonehenge in England. The direction of settlement in
Britain was in an east-to-west and south-to-north
direction. It is believed that the oldest Bell Beaker
settlement was north of Lisboa, Portugal and that they
spread their culture by land and boat.
The Bell Beaker people were associated with the
builders of the megalithic monuments (megalithic collective
burials) in Europe, placing them in Ireland at an early
date as well. There is enough evidence to suggest that
they constructed the first phase of Stonehenge in England
around BC 3100. The builders of this monument had
knowledge of applied geometry from which they derived their
measuring unit of 23.8 feet (7.25 m).
The Bell Beaker People were accomplished potters and
goldsmiths, producing utilitarian objects as well as
jewelry. Their pottery had an S-shaped silhouette and was
decorated with alternating bands of smooth and incised
decorations. They made buttons of stone, bone and amber
for their clothing. Wrist guards for archery were
initially made from perforated schist stone. From gold
they made spiral jewelry and necklaces of large gold cords
and beads of a type still worn in festivals of the northern
regions of Portugal.
In Portugal, the Bell Beaker people were established
around the mouth of the Tagus river where they came in
contact with the Almerian culture. The Almerians were
copper-smelting people from the eastern Mediterranean who
set up industrial sites at Vila Nova de Săo Pedro
(Portugal) and Los Millares (Spain) around BC 3000.
By BC 2300, the industrial colonists had disappeared
and the gold-smithing Bell Beaker People were evolving a
copper age of their own, using the simpler open mold form
of casting rather than the closed mold of their
predecessors. They hardened their copper by using 2%
arsenic in the mixture and by a process of hammering the
metal. By BC 19th century they were adding 10% tin to make
a high quality bronze.
The addition of copper to their metallurgical industry
gave the Bell Beaker People better weapons to export to
other non-copper-producing areas. They made copper-tanged
arrow heads, wrist guards, daggers, axes and javelin heads.
The knowledge of copper-working quickly spread through
their network of communities in Europe as they searched for
metal and distributed their goods and expertise.
Within 100 years, the Copper Age Bell Beaker culture
had spread into various parts of Spain, the Rhône and Rhine
valleys, Bohemia, Algeria, Sicily, Sardinia, Ireland and as
far north as Denmark. In the Rhine Valley, their culture
mixed with that of the Battle Axe people and the Q-Celtic
Goidel culture was born. The Bell Beaker people who
travelled into Czech mixed with the culture of the Yamnaya
and from this fusion the Unetice culture was born.
The study of sites of the Bell Beaker culture in
Portugal indicate that they ate a varied diet of wild boar,
deer, aurochs, fish, shellfish, snails and partridge as
well as domesticated cow, horse and goat. They also ate
acorns gathered from the oak and cork oak, pine-nuts,
olives, grapes and beans, and made bread from wheat, barley
and acorn flour.
Grave excavations have shown that the earlier
Neolithic people were longhead Mediterranean type buried in
community long barrows and were probably the Bell Beaker
People. When they mixed with the Battle Axe people they
were introduced to the concept of single grave which they
adopted and topped with a round barrow (tumulus). The
Bronze Age that was to follow produced a hybrid warrior
with superior weapons, horses and wheeled wagons. The new
culture produced weapons and tools of bronze which included
daggers and swords rivetted to wooden or bone handles,
halberds, palstaves and sickles.
In France, passage and gallery grave goods included
bell beakers, small copper daggers, copper and gold jewelry
and polished stone axes reminiscent of the Battle Axe
People. The Bell Beaker culture were the "giants" of
Europe and their accomplishments of the Stone Age are still
awe-inspiring.
NAME Berber
ALTERNATIVE Barbar / Tuareg / Zouawa
EVOLVED FROM Libyan (Mediterranean)
COUNTRY Morocco / Algeria / Tunisia / Libya
TERRITORY Libia
LANDMARKS Mediterranean / Atlas Mountains / Sahara
AGE Bronze / Iron
DATES BC 12th c / BC 2nd c
SIGNATURE herder-warriors / matriarchal
SEE ALSO Basque / Libyan / Phoenician / Roman
REMARKS The Berbers are of the Mediterranean Caucasian
group and have settled in north Africa from the
Mediterranean through the Atlas mountains and into the
northern Sahara. They were a warrior-herder people,
speaking a Indo-European language and living in a
matriarchal society where succession went to the sister's
son.
The plains Berbers are typically of medium height
5'4˝" (1.6 m), with a long head, narrow nose, dark eyes and
wavy black hair. The blood type of the Berbers is high in
Rh- (18-30%) and in some tribes as high as 50%, and type O
is also very high, suggesting a link with the Basques. The
mountain tribes have a high percentage of people with fair
skin, blue eyes and light-colored hair.
Music and mobility were and still are important to the
Berbers. Berber women adorned themselves with multiple
gold necklaces covering the front of their bodies, similar
to women in northern Portugal and northwestern Spain.
The Berbers were in North Africa (Libya) when the
Phoenicians arrived in BC 12th century and when the Romans
conquered it in BC 2nd century and began the deforestation
of the land. The Berbers controlled the trading between
the north and the south. They often sought to trade for
metal, as there was little metal in the soil north of the
mountains. The Berbers of today are mostly of the Muslim
faith but still retain their language.
ALTERNATIVE Bretani / Brettania / Pretani / Prettania /
Pritani / Priteni
EVOLVED FROM Tumulus-Urnfield (Pictish) / Hallstatt /
La Tčne A
COUNTRY Turkey / France / England / Wales
REGION Brittany / Cornwall
TERRITORY Gaul / Aremorica / Llydaw / Lloegr
LANDMARKS Black Sea / Irish Sea
SITES Istanbul
AGE Bronze / Iron
DATES BC 15th-12th c / BC 13th c / BC 6th c
LEADERS Hu Gardarn / Prydain
SIGNATURE Alpine stock / cattle herders / matrilineal /
tattoos / horse warriors / chariot warriors /
leather ivy-shaped shields / timber-laced forts
/ bagpipes
SEE ALSO Celtic / Cimmerian / Hallstatt / La Tčne /
Pictish / Tumulus / Urnfield
REMARKS The mythology of the Briton culture claims that
they crossed Asia Minor to "The Land of Hav" (Land of
Summer) on the shore of the Black Sea around present-day
Istanbul. They were most likely a mixed group of warriors
from the Tumulus-Urnfield culture who raided in the Near
East and into Egypt over a period of 300 years from BC 15th
to BC 12th century.
Around Istanbul, Hu Gardarn divided the people into
tribes (Defrobani - awakening of the banners) and led them
across the continent of Europe, most likely, by way of the
Danube to the Rhine. Here they split into two groups when
a portion of the tribes travelled south and settled in
Gaul, from the Bodensee in Switzerland to the Loire river
in Llydaw (Brittany). In BC 13th century a large number of
the warriors who settled in the north went to Britain and
the island became known as "Ynys Prydain" (Pretani Island)
or Island of the Picts.
The Picts were matrilineal Alpine cattle-herders. The
warriors of both sexes tattooed their bodies with beasts,
symbols, patterns and interlocking rings around their eyes.
The Irish word "cruth" and the Welsh word "pryd" both mean
form. They carried long spears and ivy-leaf-shaped shields
made of white oxhide. The warriors rode horses and used
chariots as forms of transportation. They built timber-
laced forts, a technique which they probably brought back
from the Aegean. They may also have been responsible for
bringing the bagpipes, which then spread throughout Europe.
Over the next seven hundred years the Picts were
exposed to the Cimmerian, Urnfield, Hallstatt and La Tčne
cultures. As each new group arrived, Gaul became more
crowded.
In BC 6th century a Pictish chieftain named Prydain
(Pretani) led warriors of the Picts from Brittany (Llydaw)
to England (Lloegr), where they landed in Cornwall. They
were carrying the superior weapons of the La Tčne A period
and quickly conquered the warring tribes of the area,
becoming the dominant culture. They were more involved in
agriculture than their earlier cousins, using some of the
pastures for grain growing and doing their threshing inside
of barns as opposed to out in the fields. In England the
people became known as the Britons. They were Brythonic-
speaking P-Celts and some warriors travelled on to Ireland
and settled in the southeast along the Irish Sea, where
they became subjects of the Goidel.
NAME Carthaginian
ALTERNATIVE Poeni
EVOLVED FROM Phoenician
COUNTRY Lebanon / Tunisia / Spain
LANDMARKS Mediterranean
SITES Alalia
CENTERS Carthage / Cartagena (Nova Carthago)
AGE Iron
DATES BC 814 / BC 535 / BC 509 / BC 480 / BC 450 /
BC 4th c / BC 262-241 / BC 242 / BC 218-201 /
BC 217 / BC 183 / BC 149-146
DEITIES Baal (Belenos) / Astarte
LEADERS Dido / Hamilcar / Hasdrubal / Hannibal
SIGNATURE ships / urban / standing army / traders / war
elephants
SEE ALSO Etruscan / Roman / Phoenician / Tartessian
REMARKS Carthage was founded around BC 814 by Dido
(Elissa), daughter of the Phoenician ruler of Tyre. She
used her inheritance to purchase land from the inhabitants
of Tunisia. As they would sell her only the amount of land
that could be covered by an ox hide, she cunningly cut the
hide into thin strips and surrounded a large piece of land
with two harbors.
The Carthaginians practiced sacrifice and venerated
the deities Baal and Astarte. Carthage became a prosperous
trading center after she and her Etruscan allies defeated
the Tartessians and the Greek Phoceans in the naval battle
of Alalia at Corsica in BC 535. In BC 509 Carthage made a
treaty with the city-state of Rome. In BC 480 they tried
to conquer Sicily but were beaten by an army of Celtic
mercenaries led by Gelon of Syracuse. In BC 450 they
founded colonies on the west coast of Africa and traded in
slaves, ivory and gold. By the time Tyre fell in BC 4th
century, Carthage controlled much of the Mediterranean
trade.
From BC 262 to BC 241 the Carthaginians fought the
first Punic War with Rome in Sicily. The army was led by
Hamilcar Barca who eventually lost to Rome. Hasdrubal
conquered land in Spain from the Bastetani tribe of the
Thracian Tartessians and in BC 242 he captured their city
Mastia and changed the name to Nova Carthago (Cartagena).
In the second Punic War (BC 218-201) the Carthaginians, led
by Hasdrubal, won a war in Spain against the Romans.
Hasdrubal's brother Hannibal, who had sworn in
childhood to defeat Rome, led his troops and war elephants
from Spain across the Alps into Italy so he could fight the
Romans on their own territory. In BC 217 he annihilated a
superior force of Romans under General Flaminius and for
the next 10 years remained a thorn in the side of Rome as
he led his army around Italy, causing chaos but sadly not
reaching his objective.
Hasdrubal was sent to help out his brother but was
defeated in the north of Italy before making contact.
Hannibal escaped back to Carthage which was under siege
from Rome. Carthage eventually lost to Rome who then
forced them to a treaty in which they lost their dominant
position in Spain. In BC 183 Hannibal committed suicide.
The third Punic War (BC 149-146) was initiated by the
Romans. They ruthlessly destroyed Carthage and made it
into a Roman province.
NAME Celtic
ALTERNATIVE Celtae / Celtic {Keltic} / Keltai, Keltoi
(Greek)
EVOLVED FROM Goidel
COUNTRY Austria / Belgium / Bulgaria / Czech / England /
France / Germany / Hungary / Ireland / Italy /
Luxembourg / Moldova / Netherlands /
Poland /
Portugal / Romania / Scotland / Slovakia / Spain
/ Switzerland / Turkey / former Yugoslavia /
Wales
AGE Bronze / Iron
DATES BC 3rd mill / BC 2200 / BC 2nd mill
SIGNATURE multi-cultural / Q-Celt / P-Celt / head-hunters
/ single grave / herders or farmers / male and
female warriors / hillforts / horse-warriors /
chariots / druids / metempsychosis / torcs /
ornamentation
SEE ALSO Aquitani / Aremorican / Argaric / Battle Axe /
Belgae / Bell Beaker / Briton / Cymry / Galatian
/ Gallic / Goidel / Greek / Hallstatt / La Tčne
/ Pictish / Roman / Tumulus / Unetice / Urnfield
/ Wessex
REMARKS The name Celtic referred to certain Gallic
tribes in France, Switzerland and Spain. Although the
Greeks called them Keltai and the Romans called them
Gallic, in their own language they called themselves Celtae
(Celts). The term Celtic {Keltic} has survived and is used
by scholars and researchers to denote certain groups and
cultures that evolved in Europe and formed a particular
type of society.
These people shared a common ancestry, language,
religion, social structure and way of life. They also
shared similar burial practices during different stages of
cultural evolution revolving around the concept of the
single grave using either inhumation or cremation. It is
accepted that the Celts were not a unified racial stock,
but rather a mixture of various types of Caucasian. They
were a warrior society of highland pastoral herders and
lowland agricultural ranchers, they spoke either a Q-Celt
or the later P-Celt language base, and practiced both
matriarchal and patriachal types of lineage.
Celtic society was divided into 3 groups: nobles,
freeholders and slaves. The nobles were eligible to become
the chieftains, druids or warriors and spent their time
studying, practicing, hunting, warring and feasting.
Freeholders rented land from the nobles and herded,
raised crops, made crafts etc. and in time of war were the
battle-line soldiers. Slaves were the walking dead and
looked after the drudgeries of life until they were
sacrificed.
Men and women had equal status within Celtic society.
Women were not condemned to the role of breeders because
they had a knowledge of medicinal contraception and a
system of fosterage. Women were also not condemned to
dependency on the male because they had the knowledge of
the sword. Men and women wore similar clothing, jewelry,
etc. depending on the tribal customs.
Goidel mythology defines the Goidels as a true Celtic
people and archaeology places them in the Rhine valley
around BC 2200. This places the origins of the Celts at
the beginning of the true European Bronze Age. Around the
same time the Unetice culture was developing in Czech.
Some insist that the Celtic people did not evolve
until the Urnfield culture, while others are reluctant to
place them prior to Iron Age Hallstatt. A few researchers
refuse to call any of these people Celtic and reserve the
term for the La Tčne cultures only. Some English have
tried to eliminate the name altogether, finding it a hard
word to pronounce. Government policy seems to decree that
whenever possible sites, objects and people are to be
referred to by the archaeological terms of Bronze Age or
Iron Age, or the misleading term "British".
A solution to some of these differences has been
sought by the scholars who refer to certain of these
stages, such as Tumulus and Urnfield, as Proto-Celtic. For
everyday use, the term Celtic has become accepted in
reference to any of the cultures suspected of speaking the
Gaelic or Brythonic languages such as the Aquitani,
Aremorican, Argaric, Belgae, Briton, Cymry, Danann,
Firbolg, Galatian, Gallic, Goidel, Hallstatt, La Tčne,
Pictish, Tumulus, Unetice, Urnfield and Wessex.
After thorough research, Stuart Piggott asserts
(Ancient Europe, p. 91) that the roots of the Celtic
culture reached back to the beginning of BC 2nd millenium.
Nora Chadwick believed that "the foundations of the Celtic
culture" were laid at the close of BC 3rd millenium (The
Celts, p.24). Henri Hubert believed that the Celts began
to evolve around the beginning of the European Bronze Age
(The Rise of the Celts, p.186).
NAME Cimmerian
ALTERNATIVE Cimmerii / Kymmerioi / Gimmerai
EVOLVED FROM Goidel
COUNTRY Moldavia / Ukraine / Russia / Turkey / Germany /
France / Belgium / Switzerland / England / Wales
LANDMARKS Black Sea / Azov Sea / Caucasus / Channel
SITES Gordium
AGE Bronze / Iron
DATES BC 15th-12th c / BC 11th-8th c / BC 9th c / BC
8th c / BC 696 / BC 626
SIGNATURE timber graves / horse-riding nomads / horse
trappings / bridle bits / horse harnesses
SEE ALSO Celtic / Hallstatt / Illyrian / Scythian /
Thracian / Tumulus / Urnfield
REMARKS The origins of the Cimmerian culture are not
known with certainty. Goidel mythology suggests they were
the children of Gomer, son of Iafeth, which would mean that
the Cimmerians evolved out of the Goidel culture.
It is quite possible that they mixed with the Tumulus-
Urnfield fusion when they raided through Asia Minor and
south to Egypt between BC 15th and 12th centuries. Between
BC 11th-8th centuries, Cimmerian horse warriors travelled
across Europe to England and Wales.
By BC 9th century, the Cimmerians were known to be
well established on the Ukraine steppes north of the Azov
Sea. When engaged in combat, the Cimmerians dismounted
from their horses and fought on foot with swords. In BC
8th century they were dislodged from their homeland by
incoming Scythians who fought from their horses using bows
and arrows as well as swords.
The fleeing Cimmerians travelled in two different
directions. One group crossed the Caucasus to Turkey where
they fought against the Assyrians, killing their leader.
Next, they sacked the Phrygian city of Gordium in BC 696.
They then settled into a nomadic life in western Turkey
until they were joined by Thracian warriors from Europe. By
BC 626 the Cimmerian-Thracian warriors were destroyed by a
combined force of Assyrians and Scythians.
By BC 8th century the other group of Cimmerians had
travelled westward through the Balkan Penninsula and into
Germany, Belgium, France, Switzerland and across the
channel to England and Wales. They were the fast-moving
horse warriors who influenced the Hallstatt Celts with
their horses, art forms and burial practices of timber
graves. Their bridle bits and horse harnesses were quickly
adopted as they were assimilated into other cultures.
NAME Cymry
ALTERNATIVE Combroges / Kymry
EVOLVED FROM Goidel / Pictish / Briton / Belgae
COUNTRY Wales / England
TERRITORY Combrog / Cambria
AGE Iron
DATES AD 407 / AD 449 / AD 6th c / AD 7th c
SIGNATURE foot-warriors / Gwledig / confederation
SEE ALSO Celtic / Germani / Roman / Pictish
REMARKS The name Cymry is a Brythonic word that means
"those who fight side by side". The name was taken by the
different tribes of Celtic people of England and Wales when
they began to organize in AD 5th century to fight against
the increasingly frequent intrusions by tribes of Celts
from Ireland and Scotland and by tribes of Jutes, Angles
and Saxons of the Germani culture from the Continent.
The Cymry war leader was called a Gwledig and the
purpose of the organization was to protect their territory
(Combrog / Cambria) and their Celtic culture. Around AD
407, after 300 years of Roman occupation, the Imperial army
evacuated from England and Wales, leaving the people at the
mercy of the invading tribes. The lowland Celts of England
and Wales had become domesticated, their tribal system had
been destroyed and they had not been allowed to bear arms
during the Roman occupation. The wealthier Celts of
England and Wales had been educated by the Romans and were
therefore Latin-speaking. The rural people, especially
those in the non-farming areas, were of little interest to
the Romans and had retained their Brythonic language and
much of their culture.
The invading Irish Celts were establishing themselves
in pockets along the west coast of Britain while the
Pictish Celts of Scotland were fighting to re-establish
their culture in the north of England. In AD 449, a Celtic
chieftain named Vortigern invited warriors of the Germani
from the Cimbrian Peninsula to settle in England and help
him drive out the Picts. Because of the high quality of
farmland and lack of warriors, the Germani invited more of
their own people to settle. Soon, farmers of the Angles
tribe were settling in East Anglia, Saxons were moving into
the Thames area and southeast England, and Jutes were
settling in the southwest.
The Cymry were organizing to hold what territory they
could, but by AD 6th century they were overpowered in all
of the lowlands (chalklands) and held only the highland
areas of Wales and England as well as Cornwall and a part
of Brittany in France.
Another major factor in their struggle revolved around
religion. In much of England and Wales, the ruling class
of Celtic people had fallen for the new monotheistic
religion of the Romans, whereas the incoming Celtic and
Germanic tribes were of the polytheistic religion. Not all
Celts were openly embracing the new Roman religion and many
of the rural areas sided with the invaders, who were
farmers like themselves and held similar pagan beliefs.
By AD 7th century, the Celto-Germanic population was
Christianized and had become the dominant power in England.
The language of the Celtic upper class and the church was
Latin and it mixed with the language of the German
invaders. Brythonic Celtic words were kept from the rural
communities and before long the Old English language was
being spoken.
The dominant influence of the Cymry was then limited
to Wales and Cornwall where, to this day, many are still
fighting for survival. Their religion and culture have
nearly disappeared but the fight to retain their language
has gained allies as more people become aware of the
importance of their ancestry. The modern warriors are
gaining the respect of other Celtic populations whose
embers are still glowing. Musical and dance influences
from Brythonic Brittany, Gaelic Ireland, Scotland and
Canada and the renewed interest in the old Celtic culture
of England, Portugal, Spain, northern Italy and other
European countries have added fuel to the fires that burn
for those who fight side by side (Cymry).
NAME Dacian-Getae
ALTERNATIVE Daci / Getae / Getate
EVOLVED FROM Danubian / Kurgan
COUNTRY Bulgaria / Hungary / Romania / Yugoslavia
LANDMARKS Hercynian Forest / Hungarian Plains / Balkan
Peninsula / Isker / Yantra / Danube / Theiss
CENTERS Sarmizegethusa
AGE Neolithic / Bronze / Iron
DATES BC 3rd mill / BC 15th-12th c / BC 4th c / BC 335
/ BC 300 / BC 3rd c / BC 1st c / BC 53 /
AD 1st c / AD 106
DEITIES Zamolxix
SIGNATURE farmers / miners / smiths / villagers / horse
warriors / hillforts / wheeled vehicles / tumuli
/ archers / military democracy / immortality of
the soul
SEE ALSO Danubian / Kurgan / La Tčne / Roman / Scythian /
Thracian / Tumulus / Urnfield
REMARKS The proto-Dacian culture began to form during BC
3rd millenium on the Balkan Peninsula when the indigenous
people (Danubian farmers) were influenced by invading
Kurgan warrior-herders from the Ukraine-Russian steppes.
The eastern branch who were settled between the Isker,
Yantra and Danube rivers in Bulgaria were called the Getae
and the western group of the culture became known as the
Dacian. They all spoke a Thracian dialect (Indo-European)
and were mainly sedentary grain farmers who also worked
mines of gold, silver and later iron.
The tribes were headed by chieftains with religious
responsibilities and practices similar to the brahmins of
India, the magi of the Persians and the druids of Ireland.
The immortality of the soul was central to their beliefs.
The Dacians lived in small villages, built hillforts
for protection, excelled with horses, used horse-pulled
wagons and had the bow and arrow as part of their arsenal.
Between BC 15th-12th century, the Dacian-Getae culture
was influenced by the Bronze Age Tumulus-Urnfield warriors
who were on their way through the Balkans to Anatolia and
many of their young warriors would have gone with them.
When the La Tčne Celts arrived in BC 4th century, the
Dacians were under the influence of the Scythians.
Alexander of Macedonia attacked the Getae in BC 335 on the
lower Danube but by BC 300 they had formed a state, founded
on a military democracy, and began a period of conquest.
More Celts arrived during BC 3rd century, and in BC 1st
century the fearsome Boii made the mistake of trying to
take away some of the Dacians' territory on the eastern
side of the Theiss river. The Dacians drove the Boii south
across the Danube and out of their territory, at which
point the Boii gave up and went away.
In BC 53 Caesar stated that the Dacian territory was
on the eastern border of the Hercynian Forest. Late in AD
1st century, a Dacian chieftain forced the Romans to
retreat from their territory but in AD 106 their capital,
Sarmizegethusa, fell to the Roman war machine. Rome was
quick to destroy their language and subject them to their
yoke.
EPITHET Tuatha Dea (The tribes of the Goddess)
ALTERNATIVE Aeacean / Achaean (Allies) / Argives / Danaan /
Danand / Mycenaean / Tuatha De Danann {Tootha
Day Dah-nan} / Aes Sidhe (Race of the Mounds)
EVOLVED FROM Nemedian of the Yamnaya
COUNTRY Ireland / Scotland / England / France / Wales
REGION Mayo / Sligo / Kerry / Meath / Donegal
TERRITORY Albainn
LANDMARKS Lough Corrib / Ballysadare
SITES Troy / Plain of Towers (Magh Turieadh) /
Taillcenn / Mag Mell (Fields of Happiness) / Tir
na nOg (Land of Youth / Beauty) / Hi-Brasil
AGE Bronze
DATES BC 19th c / BC 16th c / BC 13th c
DEITIES Danu
LEADERS Iarbonel / Ibath / Danaus
SIGNATURE matriarchal / tumuli / warriors / rulers
SEE ALSO Celtic / Firbolg / Fomorii / Goidel / Mycenaean
/ Tumulus / Unetice / Urnfield / Yamnaya
REMARKS The Danann were the descendants of the Nemedian
followers of Ibath, son of Iarbonel. He had led his people
to Great Lochlann (Scandinavia) in the north-east where
they studied the arts of druidism.
The Danann were involved with the Mycenaean culture
who were by BC 19th century transporting trade goods
between the North Sea and the Balkan Peninsula. It is
feasible that the Danann also ventured to Thrace
(Turkey/Bulgaria/Greece) on the Balkan Peninsula before
they returned to Ireland with their powerful druids.
Wherever they went they acquired their knowledge from the 4
centers of Failias (fal=hedge), Goirias (gor=fire), Finnias
(fin=white) and Muirias (muir=sea) or maybe from the four
elements of earth, fire, air and water.
The Danann then voyaged to Dobar and Urdobar
(Hebrides?) in Albainn (Scotland/northern England) where
the 3 sons of Beoan had led their group of Nemedians after
they left Ireland. Here the Danann stayed for 7 years
while visiting Ireland in the spirit form, travelling
through the air to the mountain of Conmaicne Rein in
Connacht. On a Beltainn of BC 16th century, they invaded
Ireland by ship. They landed in Connacht and tried to
negotiate with their kin, the Firbolg. The Firbolg were
descendents of Semeon the Nemedian who had also left
Ireland and returned.
After a failed negotiation, the two groups of Celts
went to war at summer solstice. The battle is now known as
the first battle of Magh Tuireadh (South Moytura) and was
fought near Cong by Lough Corrib in county Mayo. The
Firbolg lost the battle and retreated to nearby islands.
When the battle was over, the Danann described
themselves as delightful golden-haired people of the most
handsome and fairest of form. Their artisans were the best
and their equipment and apparel were the most
distinguished. They used lances of blue light and shields
of pure white. Their warriors excelled in the arts more
than anyone else. They were the bravest and inspired the
most horror, fear and dread.
Twenty-seven years later, the Danann fought the second
battle of Magh Turieadh (North Moytura) against the Fomorii
on another summer solstice. The battle was fought in the
north of County Sligo near Ballysadare. The Danann were
victorious again and now had total control of Ireland. The
Danann tribal organization was matriarchal and they divided
Ireland into 3 provinces (coiceda).
Just as the Danann were settling in, the Sons of Mil
(Warriors of Spain) of the Goidel culture invaded. The
Danann fought the battles of Sliabh Mish in Kerry,
Taillcenn at Tailltinn (Teltown) in Meath and Druim Lighean
(Drumleene) in Donegal against the Goidel and lost. When
the peace negotiations were over, it was agreed that the
Goidel would control all that was above the surface and the
Danann would control what was under.
Groups of the Danann retreated to the western isles of
Magh Mell (Field of Happiness), Tir na nOg (Land of Youth /
Beauty), and Hi-Brasil. Those Danann who remained in
Ireland settled in the Sidhes (tumuli) and became known as
the Aes Sidhe (Race of the Mounds). They were revered by
the Goidel for their great knowledge, and in time their
dead heroes were treated as gods. The Danann were
considered to be people of the day, light and sun.
The Danann were supposed to have received their name
from Danaus, who was a head chieftain of Argos (central
France). They fought with the Achaeans (allies) in the
great war of Troy during BC 13th century. Iman Wilkens,
after intensive research (Where Troy Once Stood), places
Troy outside Cambridge in England.
The Danann managed to keep their blood line in the
controlling force of Ireland through intermarriage. Members
of the Danann also settled on the west coast of Wales and
were major players in the history of that country.
NAME Danubian
ALTERNATIVE Neolithic farmers
COUNTRY Turkey / Romania / Ukraine / Poland / Germany /
Netherlands / Belgium / France / Spain /
Portugal / England / Wales / Ireland
LANDMARKS Black Sea / Aegean / Balkan Peninsula / Danube
AGE Neolithic
DATES BC 5th mill / BC 4500 / BC 4th mill / BC 3500
SIGNATURE Mediterranean / farmers / villagers / communal
graves / fetal position burial / spirals /
ornamented pottery / lack of religious objects
SEE ALSO Ertebolle-Ellerbek / Neolithic
REMARKS Danubian farmers were a slash-and-burn grain-
growing culture that developed in Neolithic Turkey. They
would burn an area of forest, then plant grain between the
dead trees with the help of digging sticks and hoes. The
farmers migrated through the Balkans and into the Danube
valley during BC 5th millennium. They were a slight people
with dark hair, dark skin and blue eyes.
Because of their crude farming methods, the Danubians
had to move to new land when the soil became depeleted.
They lived in villages of long rectangular wooden
farmhouses with attached barns. They worked timber with
polished stone adzes and made clay pottery ornamented with
parallel lines, spirals and scrolls.
Artifacts of the Danubian culture disclose an absence
of religious buildings or idols. Their dead were inhumed
in the fetal position in communal graves and were adorned
with jewelry made from the shells of the Mediterranean
mussel (Spondylus Gaederopus).
By BC 4500 the Danubian culture extended from the
Black Sea across northern Europe to northern France, and by
BC 3500 they were farming in Wales. During BC 4th
millennium the Danubian farmers influenced the Ertebolle-
Ellerbek, a Neolithic hunter-fisher people of the north
European plain.
NAME Ertebolle-Ellerbek
EVOLVED FROM Neolithic hunter-fisher / Danubian
COUNTRY Poland / Germany / Netherlands / Denmark /
Norway / Sweden
LANDMARKS North Sea / Baltic Sea
AGE Neolithic
DATES BC 4th mill / BC 3rd mill / BC 2nd mill
SIGNATURE funnel-necked beaker / fisher-hunters
SEE ALSO Battle Axe / Danubian / Neolithic
REMARKS During BC 4th millennium, Neolithic hunter-
fisher people of the north European plain were influenced
by incoming Danubian farmers. This mixing of the two
cultures was to produce a third called the Ertebolle-
Ellerbek culture. The signature of the culture was a
funnel-necked beaker.
By the beginning of BC 3rd millennium, their culture
spread along the north from Poland through Germany to the
Netherlands and north into Denmark, southern Norway and
Sweden. By BC 2nd millenium, the culture was being
strongly influenced by the Battle Axe people.
NAME Etruscan
ALTERNATIVE Tusci / Etrusci / Rasenae
EVOLVED FROM Tumulus-Urnfield / Villanovan
COUNTRY Italy
REGION Bologna / Tuscany
TERRITORY Etruria
LANDMARKS Alps / Po / Mediterranean / Euganean Hills /
Ticino
SITES Alalia / Ticino
CENTERS Bologna / Verona
AGE Bronze / Iron
DATES BC 15th-12th c / BC 1100 / BC 1000 / BC 7th c /
BC 614-576 / BC 535 / BC 474 / BC 4th c /
BC 3rd c
LEADERS Tarquin / Raetus
SIGNATURE herders / traders / urban / drystone walls /
tumuli / male & female warriors / funeral urns
SEE ALSO Carthaginian / Celtic / Greek / Hallstatt /
La Tčne / Phoenician / Rhaeti / Tartessian /
Tumulus / Urnfield
REMARKS Mythology claims that the Etruscans came from
Lydia in present-day Turkey. It is possible that they
evolved from the Tumulus-Urnfield warriors who between BC
15th-12th raided Asia Minor. The proto-Etruscan warriors
pushed the Italic Umbrian tribes south as they conquered
land in the Po Valley and along the west coast of Italy
which they named Tuscany (Etruria). There, around BC 1100
they mixed with the Urnfield people who were known as the
Villanovans. The fusion of cultures became known as the
Etruscan.
The Villanovans were herders, miners, amber traders,
lived in organized villages and had male and female horse
warriors. Their burials were in funeral urns often covered
with clay helmets.
The Etruscans evolved into an urban people, with
twelve principal cities joined in a confederation. They
were known for their art and music and by BC 1000 were
influencing other cultures including those of their
homeland and the developing Hallstatt culture in Austria.
They built drystone walls from large rough-hewn stones and
buried their dead in tumuli or, when conditions permitted,
cut chambers into solid rock. The first part of their
culture was connected with the Phoenicians, who were noted
traders.
By BC 7th century the Etruscan culture was in decline
as they began to copy Corinthian and Attic imports. During
the time when the Etruscan Tarquin (BC 614-576) was the
leader of the city of Rome, the Iron Age Hallstatt Celts
invaded Italy.
In BC 535 at Alalia in Corsica, the Etruscans fought
beside the Carthaginians against the Phocean Greeks and
their allies the Tartessians. The Etruscans and
Carthaginians were victorious and thereby gained control of
the Mediterranean trade routes.
In BC 474 the Etruscans lost a battle to Celtic
warriors near the present-day city of Ticino. During BC
4th century, the Etruscans were invaded by the Gallic La
Tčne culture led by Bellovesus and were defeated near the
Ticino River. Some Etruscans, such as those near Bologna,
remained where they were while others, like the followers
of Raetus, fled to the Euganean Hills near Verona and
became known as the Rhaeti. The incoming Celts caused an
increasing erosion of their territory and by BC 3rd century
the Etruscans were conquered by the armies of the expanding
Roman agriculturists.
NAME Firbolg
EPITHET Men in Trousers / Men with Bags / Men with
Bellies
ALTERNATIVE Fir Bolg / Fir Bholg / Fir Bold
EVOLVED FROM Nemedian of the Yamnaya
COUNTRY Ireland
TERRITORY Gaul / Belgica / Ulster / Connacht / Leinster
/ East Munster / West Munster
LANDMARKS Lough Corrib / Aran / Islay / Man / Rathlin /
Hebrides
SITES Plain of Towers (Magh Turieadh)
CENTERS Dun Aonghusa on Inishmore
AGE Bronze
DATES BC 17th c
LEADERS Semion
SIGNATURE highland herders
SEE ALSO Belgae / Celtic / Danann / Fomorii / Tumulus
/ Unetice / Urnfield / Yamnaya
REMARKS The Firbolg invaded Ireland on the eve of Bron
Tro Gain (Lughnasadh) sometime during BC 17th century. They
were the descendants of the Nemedian who had left Ireland
and under the chieftain Semeon, son of Starn, sailed to
Thrace. During the Bronze Age there were territories in
Britain, France and the European side of present-day Turkey
called Thrace. In Thrace the Nemedian became a subject
people and the ancestors of the Firbolg.
The Firbolg invasion was led by the five sons of Dela.
They divided the island into the five coiceda (provinces)
of Ulster, Connacht, Leinster, East Munster, and West
Munster. The provinces met in the center of Ireland on the
hill of Uisnech where the stone of divisions lay. Connacht
became their main province of settlement.
There is a good deal of confusion as to what their
name meant. The epithet (men with bags) could mean they
were miners or metal workers who used the bags to carry ore
or as bellows to smelt the ore. They may have been
bagpipers but most likely they were a horse-riding cattle
culture and the name referred to the wearing of trousers
(people who dressed in leather). The term "fir" (or
"fear") in old Irish may have referred to the family and
not just men.
After the Firbolg had ruled Ireland for only 37 years,
warriors of the Danann arrived. They were also descendants
of the Nemedians who had fled Ireland under the leadership
of Ibath. The Firbolg and Danann tried to negotiate a
peace, but the attempt failed and the two groups of Celts
fought a battle on summer solstice near Loch Corrib in Co.
Mayo. The battle has since been referred to as the First
Battle of Magh Tuireadh (South Moytura). The battle raged
northward and 1100 warriors of the Firbolg died before they
reached Traig Eothaili.
The Firbolg lost the battle and retreated to Connacht
and the islands around Ireland and Scotland such as Arran
(Ara), Islay (Ile), Isle of Man (Man), Rathlin (Rachra) and
the Hebrides. It is thought by some that the Firbolg led
the Fomorii during the Second Battle of Magh Tuireadh:
another battle that was also lost to the Danann.
In BC 1st century Firbolg, sons of Umor from the
islands of Scotland, were being harassed by the Picts and
began to return to Ireland. Carbre Niafer, head chieftain
of Leinster, agreed to allow them to settle in Leinster but
did not want them to return in great numbers so he imposed
a heavy tax on them.
The Firbolg went to Medhb for permission to settle in
Connacht. She agreed to this and Oengus constructed the
fortress of Dun Aonghusa on the island of Aran Mor in
Galway Bay, Cimme 4-heads settled at Loch Cimme (Loch
Hacket), Cutra settled on Loch Cuthra, Mil established his
people on Murbech, Dalach settle upon Dail, Bera on the
headlands (Kinvarra), Mod settled his people on Modlind
(Clew Bay), Irgus took the area of Cend Boirne, Cing took
the territory of Aigle, Bairneach settled Laiglinne,
Concraide settled his people on Inis Medoin, Lathrach
settled Tulach Tend, Taman took Rind Tamain (Towan Point)
and Conall, son of Oengus son of Umor, settled Aidne.
When Carbre Niafer heard that the Firbolg had up and
moved to Connacht he was angry and called for his 4
sureties and told them to bring the heads of the nomad sons
of Umor. The wife of mac Magach asked for a delay until
Oengus could take counsel. Oengus decided to send 3
champions and his son Conall against the 4 sureties of
Carbre Niafer rather than moving again. Oengus sent Cing
of Aigle against Ros mac Dedaid, Cimme four-heads against
Conall Cernacht, Irgus Many Battles against Cet mac Magach
and his son Conall The Great against Cu Chulainn.
The Firbolg champions lost to the 4 sureties of Carbre
Niafer but they were now allowed to settled permanently in
Connacht. They became loyal to Medbh and helped her defend
the province of Connacht in many battles such as the famous
Cualnge Cattle Raid.
NAME Fomorii
EPITHET Demons of the Sea / Demons of the Minor Sea /
Sea People / Female Demons
ALTERNATIVE Domorchaib / Fo-Moir (undersea) / Fomhorchaibh /
Fomoire / Fomoraig (sea raiders) / Fomohire /
Fomoire / Fomori / Fomorii / Fomorach /
Fomorchaibh
EVOLVED FROM Amazons
COUNTRY Syria / Ireland
SITES Plain of Towers (Magh Tuireadh)
AGE Bronze / Iron
DATES BC 21st c / BC 16th c
LEADERS Cichol / Lot
SIGNATURE female warriors / fishers / hunting birds /
goatherders / 1 eye / 1 arm / 1 leg
SEE ALSO Amazon / Danann / Firbolg / Mycenaean /
Neolithic
REMARKS The Fomorii seem to have been a society with a
high percentage of female warriors, and their name relates
them to being a people of the sea. They may have been the
decendants of the followers of Cessair who landed in
Ireland during BC 21st century. They venerated the deities
of the night, dark and moon.
The Fomorii lived on the islands of northwest Ireland
and won their livelihood from fishing, hunting birds and
herding goats. They were accused of being goat-headed
which may mean that the animal was a totem of theirs.
During the Bronze Age invasions they were described as
having one eye, one arm and one leg which associates them
with magic and/or metal-working.
The mythology of the Fomorii said they came from Mount
Hermon in Syria where there was a temple to Baal. Cessair's
foster-father Saball son of Nionall (Nenua) was also
connected to the tower of Baal as well. Towers, temples,
zigguarats and pyramids were places used by the educated to
study the heavens.
The Fomorii are treated as an indigenous people of
Ireland who were powerful enough to keep the invading
tribes of the Partholean, Nemedian and Firbolg in control
and it was not until the coming of the Danann in BC 16th
century that the Fomorii were subdued by the second Battle
of Magh Tuireadh (north Moytura). After the battle, which
was fought on summer solstice, the Fomorii did not
disappear completely but as a people they did not have any
further major involvements in the history of Ireland.
If the Fomorii were of the Amazons, the battle with
the Danann may have been one of the many battles fought for
control of trade between the different sea powers of the
Bronze Age. The old manuscripts suggest an early alliance
with the Danann while they were settled in Albainn. A
number of families intermarried and many Danann fought on
the side of the Fomorii during the battle of north Moytura.
NAME Galatian
ALTERNATIVE Galatae
EVOLVED FROM Gallic / Illyrian
COUNTRY Turkey
TERRITORY Galatia
LANDMARKS Balkan Peninsula / Bosporus / Plateau of Phrygia
/ Black Sea / Aegean Sea / Kizil Irmak /
Sangarius / Mameanderes
SITES Istanbul (Byzantion) / Drunemeton
CENTERS Eccobriga / Pitobriga / Tolistothora
AGE Iron
DATES BC 3rd c / BC 278 / BC 277-276 / BC 230 / BC 27-
AD 14 / AD 40-50
LEADERS Brennus / Leonnorios / Lutarios / Deiotarus
SIGNATURE Alpine stock / mercenaries / horse-riding /
trousers / coins / tetrarchy / round-heads /
light curly hair / Trimarkisia
SEE ALSO Celtic / Illyrian / Gallic / Germani
REMARKS In BC 3rd century Gallic warriors from the
Balkan Peninsula, descendants of the followers of
Segovesus, teamed up with Illyrian warriors and under the
leadership of Brennus descended into Greece. An army under
the leadership of two chieftains named Leonnorios and
Lutarios separated from the main army before they marched
into Greece and headed toward Byzantion (Istanbul).
In BC 278 they were invited to cross the Bosporus and
serve as mercenaries for Nicomedes, king of Bithynia. They
numbered around 20,000 male and female warriors and after
fifty years of rampage they finally settled down on the
Plateau of Phrygia. This was the beginning of the Celtic
Galatian culture.
The Galatians were described as high-browed round-
heads with high faces, straight foreheads and coarse curly
light hair. They were horse-riding cattle herders who
fought with spears and swords, and both men and women wore
trousers and capes. They utilized a system, similar to
Germani horse warriors, which was called a Trimarkisia. The
mounted warrior had two helpers who ran alongside. The
warriors were also followed by their children, non-
combatants, and baggage. The Galatians produced a coin
with a woman's head on one side and a helmeted warrior on
the other; other coins had a portrait on one side and a
seated figure of the Hercules type on the other.
Their territory, Galatia, gave them access to the
Black Sea by the rivers Kizil Irmak and Sangarius (Sakarya)
and the Aegean Sea through the river Mameanderes (Buyuk
Menderes). The Galatians had a sanctuary that was
dedicated by their high chieftain Deiotarus. The sanctuary
was called Drunemeton and was southeast of present-day
Ancyra in the approximate center of their territory. The
Celts merged with some of the local people and accepted the
local goddesses who in turn accepted them.
They developed a Tetrarchy system of rule by dividing
the warriors into 3 tribes with 4 clans each. The clans
each had a chieftain and they elected a head chieftain as
leader of the tribe. The three head chieftains then
elected a high chieftain as ruler of the Galatians. They
named the three tribes the Trogmi, Tectosages and
Tolistoboii. The Romans referred to their system as the
Commonwealth of the Galatians.
In BC 277-276 Nicomedes loaned Galatian mercenaries to
fight for Ptolemy II in a war against his brother. After
the 4000 Galatians defeated him, they tried to seize Egypt
but were cornered on an island in the Nile where they all
died from starvation or by suicide. There are fragments of
their monument in a museum in Cairo.
By BC 230, the Galatians were defeated by the armies
of Seleucos II led by Attalos because they backed Antiochos
Hierax over the succession to the throne of Bithynia.
During the Roman rule of Augustus (BC 27-AD 14), Galatia
became a Roman province.
In AD 40-50, the Galatians were the first converts to
St. Paul's unique blend of paganism and the teachings of
Christ. This act led to a series of arguments between Paul
and Peter. Peter remained as the head of the followers of
Jesus and Paul developed a saviour cult based on a system
of conversion which eventually spread throughout the Roman
Empire.
ALTERNATIVE Celtae / Gailion / Galatae / Galatian / Galian /
Galli / Galladagdae / Gallograeci
EVOLVED FROM Goidel / Ligurian / Unetice / Tumulus / Urnfield
/ Pictish / Cimmerian / Hallstatt / La Tčne
COUNTRY France / Switzerland
TERRITORY Gaul
LANDMARKS Marne / Seine / Channel / Atlantic / Rhine /
Alps / Garonne
AGE Bronze / Iron
DATES BC 2200 / BC 2nd mill / BC 1800-1200 / BC 15th-
13th c / BC 1100 / BC 11th-8th / BC 9th c / BC
6th c / BC 5th c / BC 4th c / BC 300 / BC 3rd c
/ BC 1st c / BC 58
LEADERS Bellovesus / Segovesus
SIGNATURE immortality / funeral pyres / horse warriors /
chariot warriors / battle-line soldiers
SEE ALSO Aquitani / Aremorican / Belgae / Celtic /
Cimmerian / Galatian / Germani / Goidel /
Hallstatt / Iberian / Ligurian / La Tčne /
Pictish / Tumulus / Roman / Unetice / Urnfield
REMARKS The name Gallic (Galli) came into use with the
Romans as a general term for tribes who invaded Italy from
Gaul after BC 4th century. The people called themselves
Celtae (Celts) and evolved from the tribes of different
cultures who moved into the territory looking for empty
space in which to grow.
Sometime after BC 2200 tribes of the newly arrived
Goidel culture crossed the Rhine and settled in eastern
France and Switzerland. This was the base culture of the
Gallic people. They were influenced by numerous sub-
cultures which passed through their territory, some
settling around them, others among them.
The Ligurian migration out from Switzerland in BC 2nd
millenium spread over Europe. The Unetice-Tumulus culture
appeared in Gaul between BC 1800-1200. The Picts began to
arrive around BC 15th-13th century, the Urnfield culture
influenced Gaul in BC 1100, the Cimmerians between BC 11th
and 8th centuries, the Hallstatt tribes (highest
percentage) began to arrive around BC 9th century, the La
Tčne culture in BC 6th century, the Iberian culture from
Spain migrated north into Gaul by BC 5th century and the
Belgae culture was an influence in BC 3rd century.
The meeting halls of the Gallic warriors were circular
with the chieftain's position in the center and the
champions around him or her like the rim of a wheel. The
remainder of the people were situated to the outer circle
and, depending on their position in the clan or tribe,
stood or sat down.
When the Gallic chieftains called their warriors to
arms, the last warrior to arrive was tortured to death in
front of the others. The Gallic culture on every level was
divided into rival factions to ensure that all people were
protected. The leaders of the different factions had to
protect their supporters or lose authority over them. As
in any democracy, every free person had a say. Their
society was divided into three areas with the free herders,
farmers and crafts people at the bottom, the aristocratic
warriors next and then the druids advising the chieftains.
The druids looked after the sciences, laws, history,
and the relationships of the people with the many gods and
goddesses they must contend with in everyday life. In
calculating their time, light followed night for the day,
month, and year. The spoils of combat were dedicated to
the gods and anyone who went against this or was caught
stealing from a sacred site was killed by torture.
When a man and woman married, they both contributed an
equal amount of wealth to the joint account and the profits
were set aside and went to the survivor. The husband had
the power of life and death over his wives and if he died a
mysterious death, his wives were questioned by torture if
necessary and if any were found guilty they were burned to
death. Funeral pyres of warriors were similar to those of
the ancient Hindus and contained everything the warrior
treasured including animals, wives or husbands, dependents
and slaves. They believed they would all be born again at
the same time in the next life. The Gallic men did not
allow their sons to approach them in public until they were
old enough to be considered warriors.
When the population density of the Gallic territory in
central France became too high in BC 4th century, the high
chieftain of the Bituriges confederation sent out his two
heirs, sons of his sister, to find new lands for
settlement. This resulted in mass migrations and the
reorganization and redistribution of European populations.
One nephew, Bellovesus, spearheaded an invasion into
the Po Valley in Italy while his brother Segovesus led his
followers into the Hercynian Forest in the eastern Alps and
the Carpathian Mountains where they named their territory
Noricum. Some established themselves farther east, in
Pannonia, while others around BC 300 moved on to the Balkan
Peninsula to search for land. Later, descendants of these
warriors formed the bulk of an army of mercenaries who
became the Galatians.
When Caesar arrived in Gaul during BC 1st century
there were four main cultural groups living there: Gallic,
Belgae, Aremorican and Aquitani. Gaul itself was a large
territory bounded by the sea coast, Rhine River, Alps,
Mediterranean and Pyrenees. It consisted of present-day
Belgium, Luxembourg, France and part of the Netherlands,
Germany and Switzerland.
The Gallic territory was bounded by the middle Seine
and the Marne rivers to the north which separated them from
the Belgae. The lower Loire and the Loir rivers separated
them from the Aremoricans, and their territory touched the
Bay of Biscay on the west. The Garonne river separated
them from the Aquitani in the south, the Alps separated
them from the Ligurians, and the Rhine to the east was
their border with the Germani tribes.
In March of BC 58, Caesar used the excuse of the
Helvetii migration to invade Gaul against the wishes of the
Senate in Rome. He massacred approximately 258,000 men,
women and children to stop the migration. In the next
eight years, he and his legion were to slaughter many
hundreds of thousands more before he could break the Gallic
people to the Roman yoke. But never once in his writings
to the senate of Rome did he mention that his armies were
fighting female warriors as well as male.
The Celts of Gaul became a subject people, and most
gave up their own language for the popular form of Latin
spoken by the Roman soldiers, merchants and colonists. As
the Roman Empire crumpled, the Franks (Germani) settled in
France and added some Teutonic words to the vocabulary and
in time the French language developed.
NAME Germani
ALTERNATIVE German / Teutonic
EVOLVED FROM Neolithic hunters / Kurgan
COUNTRY Denmark / Germany / Sweden / Netherlands
LANDMARKS Thuringer Wald / Wesser / Saale / Rhine /
Rhon Mountains / Bodensee
SITES Chalons
AGE Neolithic / Chalcolithic / Bronze / Iron
DATES BC 2300 / BC 1700 / BC 1050-750 / BC 750-500 /
BC 6th c / BC 400 / BC 300 / BC 109 / BC 58 /
AD 3rd-4th c / AD 451 / AD 5th c / AD 476
DEITIES fire / sun / moon / stars
SIGNATURE Nordic stock / fierce warriors / horse warriors
/ herder-hunters / cremation / urnfields / hide
& fur clothing / throwing axes / matriarchal /
no druids / virgin warriors / wilderness
SEE ALSO Belgae / Celtic / Kurgan / Neolithic / Pictish /
Roman / Scythian
REMARKS The Germani evolved when the Chalcolithic Kurgan
tribes mixed with the local Neolithic community around BC
2300. From the end of the Neolithic period to the La Tčne
period, the homeland of the Germani was to the east of the
Thuringer Wald between the Wesser and Saale. Their
territory extended north into Denmark and southern Sweden.
Linguists believe that the Germani were not originally
an Indo-European-speaking people but at some time in the
distant past adopted the Indo-European language base and
developed their own form now known as German. Recent
research at the University of Pennsylvania has shown that
proto-German had some of its roots in the Balto-Slavic
language base before moving westward.
The Bronze Age came late to northern Europe and
Scandinavia because of its lack of copper. There are
records in stone that show that the Nordic Bronze Age had
connections for procuring copper from native tribes in
Ontario, Canada around BC 1700.
During their Bronze Age (BC 1050-750) and their Iron
Age (BC 750-500), the Germani practiced cremation and
buried their dead in urnfields. During the middle Bronze
Age, the Germani used a sword with a tang and handles
rivetted to the sides. During BC 6th century, the Germani
culture was influenced by invading Scythians.
The Rhon Mountains on the west separated the Germani
from the Celtic homeland, and by BC 400 the Germani had
established themselves westward to the right bank of the
lower Rhine across from the Belgae. Although the languages
of the two cultures were different, the Germani adopted
many Celtic names and loan words. From BC 300 onward, the
Germani were heavily influenced by the Celtic culture. They
adopted their manners, style of clothing and weapons such
as the cateia, a Celtic throwing axe which they renamed the
teutonus.
The Germani moved south on the heels of the Celts: as
the Celts depopulated an area the Germani moved in and
mixed with the remaining Celts. A number of mixed tribes
appeared after the Helvetii left the area of the Main river
with the Cimbri and Teutoni in BC 109.
By the time of Caesar's invasion into Gaul in BC 58,
the Germani were in control of the territory on the right
bank of the Rhine from Lake Bodensee (Brigantius) to its
mouth where they intermingled with the Belgae on the right
bank. As the Romans invaded Gaul, Celts fled to the other
side of the Rhine and settled with their Nordic cousins.
This mixing brought more of the Alpine-type people and a
heavier influence of Brythonic P-Celt. The fusion of these
two people produced Celto-Germani and Germano-Celtic
tribes.
The Germani tribes had no druids and their
relationship with the gods was simpler than that of the
Celts. They dealt only with those things that could be
seen, such as the sun and moon, and did not involve
themselves with sacrifices. Guests were sacred people and
had a special protection about them. Tacitus noticed that
the Germani, like the Picts, were a matriarchal society.
Like their cousins the Celts, the Germani passed their
days by hunting and fighting. They prided themselves on
staying virgins as long as possible, believing that this
would develop their muscle and character. Although
engagement in sexual activity before the age of 20 was
frowned upon, the Germani had no other sexual taboos.
Nudity was of no concern, males and females bathed together
and wore only limited amounts of clothing. The Germani
dressed in furs and hides from their cattle but even in
winter they wore little extra protection from the cold.
The Germani helped keep themselves in fighting trim by
robbing other tribes. They ate mainly meat, cheese and
milk and believe that farming only weakened a person. The
tribe owned the land and remained nomadic in their
territory so that individuals would not become attached to
a certain place or develop a strong desire for material
wealth. They were very concerned about the dangers of
becoming lazy, greedy or letting one person become much
richer than another.
The greatest achievement for a tribe of the Germani
was to lay waste to as much land as possible around its own
territory and keep it uninhabitated by humans. A tribe
judged its wealth by the amount of wilderness it controlled
and enjoyed eliminating farmers so as to give the land back
to nature.
Caesar was afraid of the Germani and after a few
brushes with them he stayed out of their territory. The
Romans hired Germani horse warriors who were probably their
most effective weapon against the Celts in Gaul and in
Britain. In AD 2nd-4th centuries, the Germani became
allies with the Sarmatians and raided the Dacian tribes in
Romania. During AD 3rd-4th centuries, the Germani, who
were still a young and forward-moving culture, made life
miserable for the Romans. In AD 451, the Germani stopped
the invasion by Attila and his Huns at the battle of
Châlons.
During AD 5th century, the Alemanni confederation of
Germani tribes carried the fight against Rome onto Roman
soil and in AD 476 they finally brought about the
destruction of the Empire that had forcefully subjected and
destroyed so many cultures during its reign of terror.
EPITHET Atecotti (The Very Old Ones)
ALTERNATIVE Goidel [pl], Goidil [si] (Irish Gaelic) /
Attacotti, Attecotti, Gaedel, Gwyddell (Welsh) /
Scotti (Pictish) / Gaidhlig (Scottish Gaelic) /
Milesians, Mil Espaine (Miles Hispaniae), Maic,
Miled, Mile {Mee-leh} (Latin)
EVOLVED FROM Kurgan / Yamnaya
COUNTRY Russia / Ukraine / Turkey / Netherlands /
Germany / Czech / France / Switzerland / Spain /
Portugal / England / Ireland / Scotland / Wales
/ Isle of Man
REGION Asia Minor / Lothian / Fife / Yorkshire /
Wiltshire / Anglesey / Gwynedd / Kerry / Meath /
Donegal
TERRITORY Scythia / Phrygia / Aremorica / Gaul / Connacht
/ Ulster / Munster / Leinster / Mide
LANDMARKS Black Sea / Plateau of Phrygia / Alma Dagh /
Taurus Mountains / Caucasus / Caspian sea /
Volga / Black Sea / Don / Crimean Peninsula /
Mediterranean / Alps / Rhine / Elbe / North Sea
/ Firth of Forth / Downs / Salisbury Plain /
Loire Sliabh Mish / Teltown / Drumleene
SITES Stonehenge / Tailltinn / Anglesey / Rabat
(Clythera)
CENTERS York / Salisbury
AGE Copper / Bronze / Iron
DATES BC 2200 / BC 21st c / BC 2000 / BC 19th-18th c /
BC 16th c / BC 15th / BC 13th c / BC 800 /
BC 6th c / AD 3rd c / AD 5th c / AD 842
LEADERS Gomer / Magog / Rifath Scot / Brath / Golamh /
Eremon
SIGNATURE Alpine stock / Q-Celt / single graves / round
barrow tumuli / fetal position / inhumation /
cremation / zoned beakers / ranchers / chariots
/ copper daggers / arrowheads / bright-colored
clothing / kilts / bone buttons
SEE ALSO Battle Axe / Bell Beaker / Briton / Celtic /
Cimmerian / Danann / Kurgan / Pictish / Yamnaya
REMARKS The mythology of the Goidel claims that they
were born of Gomer and Magog, 2 sons of Iafeth. Iafeth's
territory covered most of northern Asia Minor (Plateau of
Phrygia) from the Alma Dagh (Mai/Amanus) and Taurus
Mountains of southeastern Turkey northward through old
Armenia and the Caucasus. North of the Caucasus, the
territory streched east around the Caspian Sea to the Volga
and west around the Black Sea across the Don river to the
Crimean Peninsula.
The northern part of the territory was often referred
to as Scythia at different times, although this was long
before the Scythians of history. During BC 21st century,
Gomer led warrior-herders from the shores of the Black Sea
through Europe and as far west as Britain. They either
crossed the northern flatlands of Europe or followed the
ancient trade route up the Danube to the Rhine.
Some researchers believe that the Goidel culture was
not born until the Kurgan culture (Battle Axe) and the Bell
Beaker People met in the Rhine valley around BC 2200,
although archaeological evidence seems to suggest that
Alpines replaced the Mediterraneans as the dominant people
as they arrived in the different areas.
The Goidel of western Europe were an early Bronze Age
warrior culture of lowland or upper plateau cattle herders.
The Goidel constructed their buildings in the center of
their land and denoted special areas for meeting places.
This type of design is found in Germany, England and
Ireland where the Goidel were thought to live and is very
different from the plan used by the later farming Celts who
preferred to arrange their homes in villages. The Goidel
design is a style which is used by people breeding horned
cattle and/or pigs and is similar to the cattle ranches of
North America or the sheep ranches of Australia.
The early Goidel settled in the lowlands of Germany
and the Netherlands between the Elbe and Rhine rivers and
the North Sea. This is called the Goidel Homeland and is
the lowland portion of an area referred to as "The Celtic
Cradle". The "Celtic Cradle" was the land mass between the
Elbe and the Rhine rivers stretching from the North Sea
lowlands into the highland surrounding the Danube of
Germany and Czech.
Tribes of Goidels migrated across the North Sea and
settled around the Firth of Forth in Scotland, York in
northern England and Salisbury in southern England. They
were so densely settled in southern England that they left
over 2000 tumuli in Wiltshire alone. Around this time,
Stonehenge was updated and the builders left objects around
the site with ogham inscriptions which are believed to be
in a Celtic language.
Grave excavations in the area have shown that the
earlier Neolithic people were longhead Mediterranean type
buried in long barrows and were probably the Bell Beaker
People. The later group from about BC 2000 buried their
dead in round barrows (tumuli) with the body in a fetal
position. They were predominantly of the Alpine type, tall
roundheads with sandy hair, receding brow, prominent eye
ridge, massive jaw and highly developed cheekbones.
Grave goods revealed a new type of beaker called the
zoned beaker which had a neck that was clearly
distinguished from the body. From this new type of beaker
evolved the funeral urns which they used to bury the ashes
of their dead after they switched from inhumation to
cremation.
The Alpine types dressed in brightly-colored clothes
of goat hair and linen with bone buttons. They used flint
and copper daggers and arrowheads, as well as wrist guards
of schist used to protect the arm from the rebound of the
bow-string. These new people must have been of the Goidel
culture who represented the beginning of the Gaelic
(Gaeilge/Gaidhlig/Goielic) language. The term Q-Celt is
used to designate the Gaelic-speaking people.
The children of Magog are known as the Partholean and
Nemedian and were two tribes who voyages through the
Mediterranean and reached Ireland by BC 19th-18th century.
It is possible that they should also be considered Goidels.
If so, this would mean that the Firbolg, Fir Domnann and
the Danann were also descendants of the Goidel.
The descendants of Gomer's son, Rifath Scot, stayed in
the home territory of Scythia until they were led from the
Crimean Peninsula to Spain by Brath son of Death in BC 16th
century. Here they became known as the Milesian and a
chieftain named Golamh led his warriors to Scythia and
Egypt before landing in Spain via an overland route.
A number of sites in the east make references to early
Milesian settlers such as Milas (Miletus) near the mouth of
the Menderes (Meander) in Turkey. Another site that
claimed Milesian settlers was Constanta (Tomi) in southern
Romania at the mouth of the Danube on the Black Sea. The
Crimean Peninsula was also settled by the Milesians of
ancient times.
The descendents of Rifath Scot who had settled in
northern Spain invaded Ireland in BC 15th century. These
Goidel were called Milesians Espain (warriors of Spain) in
Irish mythology and were considered to be the fifth and
final group of invaders. The Goidel landed in Ireland on
Beltainn and beat the Danann in a war that was highlighted
by the battles of Sliabh Mish in Kerry, Taillcenn at
Tailltinn (Teltown) in Meath and Druim Lighean (Drumleene)
in Donegal.
At this time a group of Pictish warriors arrived in
southern Ireland. They were made welcome by the head
chieftain of Leinster because they had an antidote for the
poison used on the weapons of a tribe called the Tuath
Fidga. When the Picts became a threat, the Goidel
chieftain Eremon banished them from Ireland and sent them
to Albainn (Scotland/northern England). He allowed them to
take Goidel women, widowed by the war, as brides because
successions was through the female line.
The Goidel, being lowland cattle herders, cleared
plains for their settlements in Ireland. They wore kilts
rather than trousers, and introduced the chariot to their
new territory. After the war with the Danann, the
Milesians divided Ireland into two halves, but this only
lasted a short time and then it was divided into the five
provinces (coiceda) of Connacht, Ulster, Munster, Leinster
and Mide. Mide was the province of the the high chieftain
of Ireland (Ard Righ Eirinn) and included a sacred areas of
the other territories.
Although they controlled all of Ireland, the heaviest
settlements were in the provinces of Connacht and Ulster.
The Goidel of Connacht used the moon calendar and those in
Ulster used the sun calendar. The two groups were to
battle for many years until finally the Ulster group was
destroyed in AD 3rd century.
In BC 13th century, the Goidel became involved in a
war which lasted for 10 years and ended in a defeat for the
Trojans (Goidel) in England. After the war, northern
tribes of the culture migrated with their cattle over the
nearly empty lowlands of western Europe until they reached
the Alps in Switzerland and France and the southern
boundary of the Pyrenees.
Between the two groups of Goidel there were colonies
settled along the Atlantic coast of the continent from the
North Sea to southern Portugal and also along the Atlantic
of Morroco as far south as Clythera (Rabat) where there was
a druidic religious center.
The Goidel controlled the western tin mines in BC 800
until they lost them to the incoming Britons in BC 6th
century. Irish Goidel also settled in Wales, at Anglesey
and in most of Gwynedd (Gerrig y Gwyddell or Rock of the
Goidel).
In AD 3rd century, the Goidel (Attacotti) began
sending military expeditions to Britain and Gaul. They
landed at the mouth of the Loire in France and raided
throughout the country. At this time the Celts of Gaul
were domesticated and had many treasures to attract the
interest of their wilder cousins.
In AD 5th century Irish Goidel warriors of the Dal
Riada tribe had conquered a territory in the western
islands of Scotland and were making inroads into the
Pictish territory. They became known as the Scotti and in
AD 842 Cinaeth mac Ailpin, whose father was Goidel and
whose mother was Pictish, joined the two great cultures
together when he became Ard-righ Albainn (high chieftain of
Scotland).
NAME Greek
ALTERNATIVE Hellenes
EVOLVED FROM Aeolians / Dorians / Ionians
COUNTRY Greece / Turkey / Macedonia
LANDMARKS Aegean Sea / Ionian Sea / Balkan Peninsula
SITES Alalia / Delphi
CENTERS Marseilles / Athens / Plataea / Sparta / Phocaea
AGE Bronze / Iron
DATES BC 1900 / BC 1160 / BC 7th c / BC 6th c / BC 600
/ BC 535 / BC 513 / BC 431-404 / BC 359 / BC 336
/ BC 323 / BC 3rd c / BC 279 / BC 2nd c
DEITIES Hellen
LEADERS Philip / Alexander
SIGNATURE city-states / urban farmers / traders /
manufacturers
SEE ALSO Celtic / Ligurian / Mycenaean / Phoenician /
Roman / Tartessian
REMARKS Around BC 1900, tribes of tall Indo-European
warriors with fair complexions forged their way into the
lower Balkan Peninsula where they pushed out the
Mediterranean Pelasgians and established control of the
overland trade from the North Sea to the southern Balkans
and the surrounding Aegean. In time these people became
known as the Mycenaeans, and during the Trojan war they
fought against Troy.
After the fall of Troy, Dorians (Trojans) descended on
the lower Balkans and conquered the Mycenaean who were
settled there and established themselves as the rulers of
the lower Balkans, western Turkey and the islands of the
Aegean. Thucydides (BC 5th c) puts this date at 80 years
after the fall of Troy which would place the invasion
around BC 1160.
By BC 7th century, the people of the lower Balkans
were calling themselves Hellenes and they expanded westward
into southern Italy and Sicily and by BC 6th century,
Helles (Greece) was composed of numerous city-states mostly
ruled by tyrants. The economy was based on urban farming,
manufacturing and trade. In BC 600 the Hellenes opened
Massilia (Marseilles) in southern France to trade with the
Celts and Ligurians of the area. The Hellenes (Greeks)
traded their elaborate manufactured cauldrons, clay vessels
and heavy wines in return for iron, tin, copper, amber,
grains, salted meat, fish, furs, slaves, etc. The Greeks
adopted the Phoenician alphabet and wrote many articles on
the Celts.
In BC 6th century, the Greek Phoceans, with financial
support from the Tartessian chieftain Arganthonios, fought
against Persia in a war on the island of Cyprus. A further
collaboration between the Tartessians and the Phocean
Greeks was less fruitful when they lost the crucial naval
battle of Alalia in BC 535 in Corsica against the Etruscans
and the Carthaginians.
In BC 513, Darius the Persian crossed the Hellespont
and into the Balkans toward the Danube. He tried to extort
taxes from the Hellenes of the Peninsula but was thwarted
by the city-states of Athens and Plataea.
From BC 431 to 404, the city-states of Athens
(Hellenes) and Sparta (Dorians) fought a war for the
control of Helles. In BC 359, the Macedonian Philip
claimed the position of high chieftain of all the tribes of
Macedonia. He then organized his warriors into an army and
claimed authority over all of Helles. Philip was
assassinated while warring with Persia in BC 336. His son
Alexander concluded the war and conquered the Persian
Empire. Alexander died from dysentery in BC 323 and his
short-lived empire crumbled.
In BC 3rd century, Helles (Greece) lost its colonies
in Italy to Rome and suffered a heavy moral defeat when the
Phocean Greek temple of Delphi was sacked by the Celts in
BC 279. By BC 2nd century, Helles was conquered by the
Romans.
NAME Hallstatt
EVOLVED FROM Tumulus-Urnfield (Pictish) / Cimmerian
COUNTRY Czech / Germany / Austria / Switzerland /
Belgium / France / Spain / Portugal / England /
Scotland / Italy / Hungary / Romania /
Yugoslavia / Ireland
REGION Bohemia / Bavaria
LANDMARKS Rhine / Moselle / Rhône / Saône / Danube /
Carpathian Basin
SITES Marseilles / Vix
CENTERS Hallstatt
AGE Bronze / Iron
DATES BC 1100 / BC 1000 / BC 9th c / BC 9th-7th c /
BC 850-600 / BC 700 / BC 7th c / BC 6th c /
BC 600-400 / BC 500
SIGNATURE iron weapons / iron tools / inventors / iron-
rimmed wheels / inhumation / wagon / burials /
herders / traders / miners / timber graves / D
symbol on pottery / hillforts / square houses /
geometric patterns / explorers
SEE ALSO Celtic / Cimmerian / Pictish / Scythians /
Tumulus / Urnfield
REMARKS The Celtic Hallstatt culture received its name
because of the discovery of an archeological site in 1846
at Hallstatt in Austria, an important trading center for
salt. The culture was born in the Czech-German highlands
of the "Celtic Cradle". The "Celtic Cradle" was the land
mass between the Elbe and the Rhine rivers stretching from
the North Sea lowlands into the highland surrounding the
Danube of Germany and Czech.
In this mountainous region were vast quantities of
mineral wealth (gold, copper, tin, iron, salt). This
allowed not only control of the trade in salt from the
mountains but also in tin, copper and amber from the Danube
to the north, west and south, resulting in great
prosperity. They later began importing luxury goods such
as wine and vases from the trading center of Massilia
(Marseilles) via the Rhône and Saône Rivers to the upper
Danube.
The Hallstatt culture evolved in an area where the
Tumulus-Urnfield (Pictish) had settled. In BC 9th century
these people entered the Iron Age and adopted the practice
of Timber Grave-style burials with inhumation. The change
in burial from cremation to inhumation may have been
influenced by the Cimmerians who passed through their
territory as early as BC 1100. Around BC 1000, the
Hallstatt tribes of Austria were also influenced by the
Etruscan culture who buried their dead in tumuli. So far,
such burials have been found in the area of Bohemia, Czech
dating only from BC 700.
The Hallstatt culture has been roughly divided into
three periods of time. The dates vary according to the
distance from the center of the culture's homeland. The
Urnfield-Hallstatt period was from BC 9th-7th centuries, a
time when the culture was changing from cremation to
inhumed burial and from bronze weapons to iron. BC 850 to
600 is referred to as Early Hallstatt and is identified by,
among other things, the long iron sword with a flanged
handle and a preference for the throwing spear (javelin)
over the thrusting spear. The Late Hallstatt period was
determined mainly by the use of a smaller sword and dagger
with an antennae handle and is usually placed around BC
600-400.
Hallstatt artisans had very advanced techniques for
heating bronze and were very quick to adapt to iron. The
Cimmerian culture may also have brought the stimulus of
iron-working knowledge. It was during the Hallstatt time
period that iron gained importance over bronze and their
artisans became known for a variety of metal products. Many
different styles of weapon were produced, some with rich
decoration such as amber inlay. They produced long oval
shields as well as smaller circular ones. The development
of iron tools was a boon to wheel-wrights and carpenters.
The invention of the two-person saw and the iron adze
facilitated the building of plank burial chambers and plank
boats. Iron chisels allowed them to make better products
on their lathes.
Hallstatt tribes used a 4-wheeled wagon with larger
back. The wheels were iron-rimmed with wooden axles and
the wagon box was built with iron nails. The Hallstatt
artisans gradually improved the wheel hubs and steering,
and developed a new double yoke made of wood and covered
with leather. They also developed a new 2-link bit for
their horses.
At death, chieftains or hero warriors were laid out in
splendid garments on specially-made burial wagons or on
couches in a chamber constructed from split logs or rubble-
filled double walls, reminiscent of the Timber Grave
culture. Sometimes the wheels of the wagon were taken off
and propped against the wall. The body was surrounded by
an array of items such as bronze cauldrons, drinking
vessels, dishes, hunting horns, gold jewelry, razors,
beautifully worked swords and scabbards, bows and quivers,
and finely worked bronze mirrors.
A good example of what may have been in the grave of a
female chieftain of the Hallstatt aristocracy was uncovered
in Vix, in the Cote d'Or region of France. She was laid
out in her finest on a dismantled four-wheeled wagon. Her
grave goods included an elaborate 17-oz (480-gm) torc of 24
carat gold, a giant bronze imported Greek krater for mixing
wines, a bronze beaked wine flagon and a bronze dish. The
wagon burial practice continurd into La Tčne when it was
replaced by the 2 wheeled chariot.
The art of the eastern Hallstatt (eastern half of the
Alps to the Carpathian Basin and southeast to the shores of
the Adriatic) was mainly of a geometric style. A more
figurative art came from the west Hallstatt people of
southern Germany and eastern France. Their pottery was
often decorated with D-shaped half-moon symbols. Votive
offerings were a common practice.
The Cimmerians influenced the warriors of the
Hallstatt culture with the concept of horse-mounted
fighters. The Hallstatt warriors were restless like their
Urnfield ancestors and with the help of their superior iron
weapons, they quickly spread across Europe with their herds
of cattle and goats. They often travelled as warrior
bands, spreading the use of iron, constructing hillforts
for refuge and intermingling with other people, but also
remaining clannish. When they did settle, they lived in
square houses. They followed similar trails as their
Urnfield forbears and between BC 9th-7th centuries had
established themselves in Belgium, France and Italy. By BC
6th century there were Hallstatt tribes in Spain, Portugal,
England, Scotland and Ireland in the west and as far east
as the Carpathian Basin. In BC 6th century the Hallstatt
Celts of the Czech-Germany region were influenced by
invading Scythians.
After BC 500, the Hallstatt centre of influence moved
westward into the mountain areas of the Rhine and then into
Switzerland. The sword became shorter and acquired a sharp
tip. Hallstatt mercenaries in the East and Mediterranean
played an important role by supplying settlements with
superior weapons and products.
NAME Harappan
EVOLVED FROM Neolithic farmers
COUNTRY Pakistan
LANDMARKS Indus valley
CENTERS Harappa / Mohenjo-Daro
AGE Neolithic / Bronze / Iron
DATES BC 3500 / BC 2000 / BC 1600 / BC 1500-1200 /
BC 10th c
SIGNATURE urban grain farmers / multi-story buildings
SEE ALSO Kurgan / Neolithic / Yamnaya
REMARKS The Harappan civilization of the Indus Valley
built the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro sometime
around BC 3500. It was an agricultural society with an
early Bronze Age industry.
The city of Mohenjo-Daro had public baths, five-story
buildings and a population of 20,000 people. The site
covered an area of several hundred hectares with a
surrounding defensive wall and an effective drainage
system. The inhabitance cultivated barley and wheat and
domesticated animals such as boars, camels, elephants,
goats and zebus, a type of humped cattle.
By BC 2000, a disintegrating climate brought crop
failure. The society also began to change as Yamnaya
chariot warriors from across the Pamirs invaded the Indus
valley. By BC 1600 they were a subject people of the Iron
weilding Yamnaya warriors.
The Yamnaya introduced many hymns from the Rig-Veda to
the Indus Valley. The head of each Yamnaya family was also
the religious leader. The Vedic scholars developed the
concept of zero sometime between BC 1500-1200. The
Harappan women benefitted from the conquering people
because the Yamnaya women enjoyed a position of equality
and esteem. The mixing of the two peoples brought about
the evolution of Brahmanism from Vedism around BC 10th
century.
NAME Hittite
ALTERNATIVE Heth / Kheta / (K)hatti
EVOLVED FROM Neolithic (Mediterranean) / Yamnaya (Alpine)
COUNTRY Turkey / Syria / Iraq / Lebanon
LANDMARKS Mediterranean / Anatolian Plain / Halys Plain
CENTERS Boghaz Keui
AGE Neolithic / Bronze / Iron
DATES BC 2300 / BC 1800 / BC 1500 / BC 1250 / BC 1235
SIGNATURE urban farmers / warriors / single grave /
metalworkers / early iron producers
SEE ALSO Celtic / Neolithic / Pictish / Tumulus /
Urnfield / Yamnaya
REMARKS The Hittite culture evolved when people of the
Mediterranean stock who had been settled in the area of the
Halys Plain of Turkey since Neolithic times were conquered
by Alpine roundheads (Yamnaya) around BC 2300.
The indigenous society had already developed into
city-states and were constantly at war. They had a well-
established early Bronze Age using the closed-mold lost wax
process. They worked with silver, gold, electrum, lead,
semi-precious stones and ivory. Their weapons consisted of
swords, daggers, spears and battle-axes.
They buried their dead leaders in stone rectangular
pits with timber roofs. The burial chamber was filled with
wooden and bronze furniture as well as weapons for the
males and jewelry for the females.
The Yamnaya invaders were tribes of Alpine chariot
warriors and quickly overpowered the indigenous people. The
Yamnaya people became the rulers, eventually molding the
warring states into the Hittite Empire around BC 1800. They
made their capital at Hattusha (Boghaz Keui) on the
Anatolian plain and built a 4-mile (6-km) wall around it.
By BC 1500 the Hittites were major iron producers.
The empire began to collapse around BC 1250 and by BC
1235 the Hittites were invaded by the Sea People, which
finished them as a major power. The Sea People were most
likely the Tumulus-Urnfield warriors who raided through the
Hittite empire and south to Egypt. The center for iron
technology then shifted to the territory of the Celts in
Europe.
NAME Iberian
ALTERNATIVE Tibarenians / Hiberni (Irish Iberians)
EVOLVED FROM Libyan (Mediterranean) or Iranian
COUNTRY Spain / Portugal / France / Italy
REGION Castile
TERRITORY Gaul / Aquitanica
LANDMARKS Mediterranean / Ebro / Pyrenees
AGE Iron
DATES BC 6th c / BC 5th c / BC 480 / BC 4th c /
BC 3rd c
SIGNATURE city-state / urban farmers / falcata / cremation
/ grave goods / mud brick / rectangular houses /
mural paintings
SEE ALSO Basque / Belgae / Carthaginian / Celtic / Greece
/ La Tčne / Libyan / Ligurian / Phoenician /
Tartessian / Urnfield
REMARKS The Lebor Gabála Érenn mentions the Iberians
(Tibarenians) as descendents of Tubal son of Iafeth History
suggests that the Iberians entered the southeastern part of
Spain from North Africa around BC 6th century. Some
believe the Iberians evolved from the Libyan culture of
North Africa. It must also be pointed out that in ancient
times the region which is roughly covered by modern-day
Georgia was called Iberia. These people were speakers of
the Iranian branch of the Indo-European language and were
physically a mixture of long and round heads.
As the Iberians moved north through Spain they mixed
with tribes of other cultures who had been there before
them such as Tartessian, Ligurian, Basque, Urnfield and
Hallstatt. The Iberians were predominantly urban farmers
but also produced miners, iron workers, herders, fishermen
and traders.
The Iberians crossed the Pyrenees and invaded
Aquitanica in southern France around BC 5th century,
reaching as far as the Rhône. For the next two hundred
years no new information passed through from the north
(Gaul) to the south (Spain) until the Punic wars opened the
way for the Belgae of the La Tčne II culture, who invaded
Spain in BC 3rd century. Around BC 4th century the
Iberians had established themselves in the upper valley of
the Ebro and by BC 3rd century they were forming
settlements in Castile.
In BC 5th century, the Iberian warriors fought as
mercenaries in the Carthaginian armies against the Greeks
of Sicily and during the battle of Himera in BC 480. Later,
around BC 3rd century they formed elite troops of the
Carthaginian troops in their war against Rome. Their
warriors carried small round shields and used iron falcata
swords, often decorated in copper or gold.
The Iberian society was organized within the framework
of a city-state structure, with a ruler and a council of
elders for each urban area. They possessed laws written
down in verse form. The Iberians' early system of writing
was based on Tartessian, and later developed into Iberian
proper which shows both Greek and Phoenician influences.
Iberian cities were built on hills, and included
buildings for public functions as well as rectangular
houses constructed of mud bricks or stone and rubble with
thatched roofs. They cremated their dead and buried them
with many artifacts. Temples have been found which contain
hundreds of well-executed stone sculptures of standing and
sitting male and female figures, some adorned in gold.
Iberians also produced large-scale mural paintings and
decorative pottery with geometric, animal, plant and
narrative designs. They initially sculpted imaginary
animals but by BC 3rd century were executing more realistic
works. They used silver and gold to adorn their jewelry,
weapons and pottery, and minted their own coins. The
Iberians were also highly accomplished in music and dance.
The name Celtiberian refers to people who evolved from
the settled Celts of the Hallstatt culture and the incoming
Iberians. When the Celtic Belgae tribes entered the
peninsula they also mixed with Iberians and formed more
tribes of Celtiberians. The name Iberian causes much
confusion because some writers, from ancient times onward,
have used the name to refer to all people of the Iberian
Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) before and after the
Iberians arrived.
NAME Illyrian
EVOLVED FROM Danubian / Yamnaya
COUNTRY Albania / Yugoslavia / Romania / Greece / Turkey
REGION Dalmatia / Bosnia / Hercegovina
TERRITORY Illyria
LANDMARKS Adriatic Sea / Balkan Peninsula
SITES Gmunden / Oberzeiring / Koman
CENTERS Glasinac / Skodra
AGE Neolithic / Bronze / Iron
DATES BC 2000 / BC 15th-12th c / BC 1000 / BC 900 /
BC 8th c / BC 5th c / BC 393 / BC 359 / BC 310 /
BC 3rd c / AD 168
DEITIES Galatea
SIGNATURE tumulus / villages / hillforts / tattoos /
horse breeders / sea raiders / lembi
SEE ALSO Celtic / Danubian / Galatian / Gallic /
Hallstatt / Hittite / La Tčne / Neolithic /
Pictish / Thracian / Tumulus / Urnfield /
Yamnaya
REMARKS The Neolithic proto-Illyrian culture began to
form around BC 2000 when the indigenous people (Danubian
farmers) were invaded by warrior-herders of the Yamnaya
culture from the Plateau of Phrygia in Turkey.
Between BC 15th-12th century, warriors of the Tumulus-
Urnfield peoples passed through their territory with new
bronze technology. It would be easy to believe that many
young warriors joined their horde as they crossed into
present-day Turkey and raided the Hittite Empire, then
south to the Egyptian Empire where the invaders became
known as the Sea People. No doubt Illyrian warriors
travelled with the people later known as Picts as they
travelled to the west coast of Europe and to the islands of
Ireland and Britain.
In Austria, the Illyrians were mining salt at Gmunden
in BC 1000, but by BC 900 they had lost their silver mines
at Oberzeiring to the Celts. In BC 8th century, the
Illyrian culture began to flourish on the Adriatic side of
the Balkan Peninsula with a center at Glasinac, near
present-day Sarajevo.
The eponymous hero of the Illyrians was Illyrios, son
of Galatea and father of Antaricos, chieftain of the
Antariatae. They were a warrior society of self-governing
tribes with councils of elders and an elected chieftain.
The tribes lived in small villages with hillforts as places
of refuge. Sometimes a number of tribes banded together
into a confederation under a strong head chieftain.
Illyrian trade goods were exported throughout the
Hallstatt and La Tčne time periods and had a heavy
influence on La Tčne art. They exported asphalt, silver,
copper, cattle, cheese, grains, wine, oil, fresh-water
fish, and objects of iron and bronze. The Illyrians were
known, above all else, as breeders and exporters of horses.
The coastal Illyrians were known as pirates and used a
long, narrow fast vessel called a lembi. Like the
Thracians and Picts, the Illyrians tattooed their bodies.
Herodotus mentioned that the Illyrians were in
Dalmatia, Bosnia, and Hercegovina in BC 5th century with a
major center at Shkoder (Skodra). Numerous tumuli
containing Illyrian artifacts have been uncovered at
Glasinac in Bosnia and Koman in Albania. Some contained
elaborate chieftain burials.
In BC 393 the Illyrians conquered the Macedonians and
forced them to pay tribute, and in BC 359 they destroyed
the Macedonian army sent against them. They were driven
out by Philip when he became head chieftain of the
Macedonians.
In BC 310, disaster struck the Illyrians when a Celtic
swarm from the north drove them back into Macedonia where
they were finally conquered. In BC 3rd century Illyrian
horse warriors were with the Gallic army that invaded
Greece and supplied horse-warriors to fight as mercenaries
in Turkey where they became known as the Galatians. In AD
168 Illyria was conquered by the Romans and they submitted
to the Roman yoke.
NAME Kurgan
ALTERNATIVE Pit Grave / Timber Grave / Aryan
EVOLVED FROM Neolithic hunter
COUNTRY Russia / Ukraine / Romania / Poland / Germany /
Netherlands / Belgium / France / England /
Ireland / Denmark / Norway / Sweden / Armenia /
Turkey / Syria / Pakistan
LANDMARKS Russian & Ukraine steppes / Black Sea / Caspian
Sea / Carpathian Mountains / Baltic Sea / Balkan
Peninsula
SITES Maykop / Novosvobodnaya
AGES Neolithic / Chalcolithic / Copper / Bronze
DATES BC 3500 / BC 3000 / BC 2300
DEITIES sun god / fire goddess
SIGNATURE lowland herders / patterned clothing / tumulus /
timber-grave / shaft graves / fetal position /
swastika / solid-wheeled wagons
SEE ALSO Battle Axe / Celtic / Illyrian / Neolithic /
Yamnaya
REMARKS The name Kurgan (barrow) has come to designate
the early culture which evolved in the steppes of Russia
and the Ukraine, north of the Black and Caspian Seas
between the Carpathian mountains of Ukraine and the Pamirs
north of Afghanistan. The Kurgan tribes belonged to the
two northern types of Caucasians, the Nordic and the
Alpine.
The Kurgan tribes were semi-nomadic herders in the
Chalcolithic stage of development. They herded horses,
cattle, goats, sheep and pigs. They wove cloth in
intricate patterns for their clothing. They used a solid-
wheeled wagon which is claimed to have been invented in
Iraq (Sumer).
The Kurgan culture was also referred to by the
Sanskrit name Aryan ("noble"). Aryan is more often used to
refer to the language group that was a parent of the Indo-
European languages of Sanskrit, Iranian, Armenian,
Albanian, Balto-Slavonic, German, Celtic, Italic and Greek.
The Kurgan tribes also spread the Vedic religion which
formed the religious basis for the Celtic, Illyrian, Hindu
and many other cultures. The sun god was represented by a
swastika with the arms bent to the left and when the arms
were bent to the right it symbolized the fire goddess. They
buried their dead in single graves and shaft graves which
were roofed, and somtimes lined, with timber then covered
with a tumulus (kurgan).
At Maykop in southern Russia near the Black Sea, a
burial tumulus 33 ft (10 m) high was unearthed in 1843.
Within the mound was a large 3-chambered timber tomb
surrounded by a sacred stone circle. Each chamber
contained the remains of a body. In the southern chamber
was a chieftain richly decked out, sprinkled with ochre
(representing the blood of birth) and laying in a fetal
position. He had copper weapons and a diadem with small
gold rosettes decorating it. In the chamber were gold and
silver vases, precious stones, and a large dais made from
gold and silver tubes with large gold bulls as handles and
hundreds of little animals attached to its canopy. The
vases had engravings of palm trees, mountains, a waterfall
and a parade of animals including wild boar, goat, sheep,
bear, panther, bird of prey, a bird riding a lynx and, most
importantly, the shaggy steppe pony. The two northern
chambers contained a male and a female, both more
moderately clothed which may mean that they were servants.
Another burial at Novosvobodnaya revealed a tomb made
from stone slabs divided into compartments. Among other
items found was a linen tunic with purple trim, a camel-
haired coat with black trim and a cloak of black goatskin
worn with the hair side out.
By BC 3500 Kurgan tribes began to move out of their
homeland and spread westward in the European Danube area.
The next step in their migration spread across the northern
European lowland. They had a dramatic influence on the
cultures of Neolithic hunter-fisher and farmers. One of
the major sub-cultures became known as the Battle Axe
People. By BC 2300 the Kurgan culture was the dominant
influence across northern Europe and up into southern
Scandinavia, south into France and west to Ireland.
In BC 3000 other Kurgan tribes from the Russian
steppes who have been referred to as the Yamnaya culture
passed through the Caucasus, Turkey and into the European
highlands via the Balkans.
NAME La Tčne
EVOLVED FROM Tumulus-Urnfield (Pictish) / Hallstatt /
Scythians ?
COUNTRY Germany / France / Netherlands / Belgium /
Luxembourg / Switzerland / England / Wales /
Ireland / Spain / Portugal / Italy / Austria /
Czech / Slovakia / Yugoslavia / Romania /
Hungary / Bulgaria / Turkey
LANDMARKS Rhine
SITES La Tčne / Marseilles
CENTERS Manching
AGE Iron
DATES BC 6th c / BC 550-400 / BC 400-285 / BC 4th c
/ BC 3rd c / BC 284-100 / BC 99-1 / AD 1-Roman
/ AD 2nd
SIGNATURE farmers / villagers / chariot burials / head
hunters / heavy iron plow / potters wheel /
zoomorphic art
SEE ALSO Aremorican / Belgae / Briton / Celtic / Gallic /
/ Greek / Hallstatt / Iberian / Illyrian /
Ligurian / Pictish / Scythian / Tumulus /
Urnfield
REMARKS The Celtic La Tčne culture emerged from the
"Celtic Cradle" in Germany after the center of influence of
the Hallstatt culture had moved west into the mountain
areas of the Rhine and Switzerland. La Tčne acquired its
name from the Swiss site on Lake Neuchâtel where
archeologists found grave sites in 1858, but this is now
known to be an uncommon example from late La Tčne times.
The culture probably originated in the middle Rhine area of
Germany and northeast France in BC 6th century and rapidly
spread across Europe, extending finally from Turkey in the
east to Ireland in the west and from Germany in the north
to Portugal and Spain in the south. The Scythian intrusion
in BC 6th century may have been the catalyst for the
development of the La Tčne culture.
The term La Tčne generally denotes the second stage of
the Iron Age in Europe and is sometimes divided into La
Tčne A (BC 550-400), La Tčne I (BC 400-285), La Tčne II (BC
284-100), La Tčne III (BC 99-1) and La Tčne Late (AD 1-
Roman) in areas of Roman occupation.
La Tčne culture was associated with a much more fixed
society than that of the Hallstatt. They were
predominantly grain farmers and, unlike the highland
herders of the Hallstatt culture, required a large
population of workers. With their introduction of heavy
wheeled iron plows they increased the efficiency of
agricultural methods. This plow allowed them to handle the
heavier lowland soils and with their superior iron axes
they began the destruction of the great hardwood forests.
Settlements became more permanent and grew in size to
villages and towns (oppida). They frequently lived in
hillforts protected by bastioned stone walls which
surrounded single-room houses, streets and storage pits.
La Tčne people traded more with the Mediterranean
world than the Hallstatt culture had, especially through
the Greek trading center at Massalia (Marseilles) near the
mouth of the Rhône. They had developed a taste for the
Mediterranean wines.
The La Tčne culture continued the Hallstatt tradition
of burials but replaced the 4-wheeled wagon with a 2-
wheeled chariot. In Britain and Ireland, chariot warriors
and chariot burials continued up into AD 2nd century.
La Tčne was known for its excellent weapons and
abundance of decorative arts that initially developed out
of the Hallstatt styles but were also influenced by
Illyrian/Scythian art. The La Tčne art was in a style that
depicted abstracted images of plants, animals, and gods,
often woven together and combined with scrollwork and other
abstract patterning. Master artisans gained prominence and
material wealth became more evident as almost everything
they used seems to have been decorated, including
themselves.
La Tčne industrial settlements such as Manching in
Germany were larger and more varied in the type of raw
materials used (metals, glass, clay, leather, etc.) and in
the finished products. The potter's wheel continued to be
an important tool and the minting of coins became popular.
Britain and Ireland were influenced by the La Tčne A
culture in BC 6th century when it was carried by the
Pictish invaders from Aremorica, France. In BC 3rd century
La Tčne II was brought to the islands by the invading
Belgae and continued into the La Tčne stage III.
By late BC 4th century, the La Tčne culture was
carried by a swarm of Gallic warriors into northern Italy
and by another swarm to the Great Hungarian Plain and later
on to Turkey.
In BC 3rd century, the Belgae of Gaul pierced the wall
of Ligurian, Hallstatt and Iberian people who were settled
north of the Pyrenees, and carried the La Tčne II culture
into Spain and Portugal. La Tčne objects have been found
as far away from their epicenter as southern Russia,
Scandinavia and North Africa.
NAME Libyan
ALTERNATIVE Lehabim / Lubims
EVOLVED FROM Neolithic Capsian
COUNTRY Morocco / Algeria / Tunisia / Libya / Egypt
TERRITORY Libia
LANDMARKS Mediterranean
AGE Neolithic
DATES BC 9000-5000
SIGNATURE Mediterranean stock / hunter-herders / tents /
tattoos
SEE ALSO Berber / Neolithic
REMARKS The Libyans of white North Africa (Libia) were
the parent stock of the Mediterranean type of Caucasian and
evolved from the Capsian culture who moved north between BC
9000 and BC 5000. They were longheads with dark eyes, dark
complexion and dark wavy hair, of slender build and medium
height (average 5'5" or 1.65 m).
The Libyans were hunter-herders roaming the North
African Mediterranean coastal regions using tents for
shelter. Egyptian tomb drawings showed the Libyans as
tattooing their bodies, ornamenting themselves with bird
feathers and carrying their babies on their backs. The
Berber culture evolved out of the Libyan stock.
NAME Ligurian
ALTERNATIVE Ligures
EVOLVED FROM Neolithic hunter-fisher
COUNTRY Switzerland / Czech / France / Spain / Portugal
/ Italy
REGION Bohemia / Almeria / Liguria
LANDMARKS Alps / Mediterranean / Pyrenees
SITES Bodensee / El Argar
AGE Neolithic / Bronze / Iron
DATES BC 3000 / BC 3rd mill / BC 2nd mill / BC 7th c /
BC 600 / BC 6th c / BC 5th c / BC 1st c
SIGNATURE Alpine stock / lake dwellers / farmers / scythes
/ mercenaries / linen clothing / horn buttons /
amber
SEE ALSO Argaric / Carthaginians / Celtic / Hallstatt /
Iberian / Neolithic / Unetice
REMARKS It is thought that the Ligurians were the
Neolithic lake dwellers of Switzerland who were living in
settlements such as Bodensee by BC 3000. They were Alpine
stock, but of small stature with short broad heads.
Research has shown that during BC 3rd millenium they
were cultivating crab-apples, barley, wheat, peas, beans
and lentils as food sources. They bred cows, pigs, and
goats and used oxen, and also fished and hunted for wild
food sources. Their clothing was made from linen woven
from flax and dyed with plant extracts. They made use of
bone and horn buttons and later bronze pins were also used
to fasten clothing. As the lakes began to dry up, the
Ligurians started to migrate in all directions and by the
end of the first Hallstatt period, around BC 600, they had
completely left their homeland. They began to trade in
amber and bronze goods such as scythes.
By the beginning of BC 2nd millenium, the Ligurians
were settled to Bohemia in the north, where they influenced
the Unetice cultures. They expanded into France in the
west and through the Alps to the Mediterranean in the
south. Their Mediterranean territory stretched from Rome
to southeastern Spain, with some tribes establishing
themselves in Portugal. Ligurians are believed to have
been Indo-European speakers and their place names are
common in France and have even been found in Scotland.
The Ligurian culture may have brought the Bronze Age
south to the settlement of El Argar around Almeria, Spain.
They had contacts with the regions of Galicia and Asturias
as sources of tin. There are many parallels between the
Ligurians of the El Argar and the Unetice culture.
The Italian Ligurians of Liguria lost much of their
territory to the Hallstatt Celts by BC 7th century, and in
BC 1st century they were dominated by the Romans. The name
is still preserved in the Ligurian Alps between Italy and
France, the Ligurian Apennines north of Genoa, and the
Ligurian Sea between the northern tip of Corsica and the
Italian mainland.
By BC 6th century the French Ligurian culture survived
only in the area along the Mediterranean coast of France
from the Rhône to the Pyrenees. They were still there when
the Carthaginians arrived, and supplied mercenaries to
fight Rome.
In BC 5th century the Ligurians of Spain and Portugal
were invaded by the incoming Iberians, who squeezed in
between them and the Late Hallstatt Celts who had only
recently arrived.
The Ligurians, a non-warrior culture, seemed to have
been absorbed into Celtic society in most places and it is
thought that they spoke a similar Indo-European language,
between Celtic and Italic.
NAME Megalithic
ALTERNATIVE Megalith builders / Bell Beaker
EVOLVED FROM Neolithic hunter
COUNTRY Ireland / Scotland / Wales / England / Sweden /
Denmark / Germany / Netherlands / France /
Switzerland / Portugal / Spain / Corsica /
Sardinia / Italy / Malta / Israel /
Lebanon
LANDMARKS Atlantic / North Sea / Baltic / Mediterranean /
Balearic Islands
AGE Neolithic / Copper
DATES BC 5th mill
SIGNATURE Mediterranean stock / megaliths / communal
graves / inhumation / fetal position / menhirs /
spiral motif / cup and ring marks / sun symbols
/ scientists / seafarers / incised boats /
copper arrowheads & knives
SEE ALSO Bell Beaker / Neolithic
REMARKS In BC 5th millenium, an aberration of the
Neolithic culture appeared in the Atlantic region of
Europe. They were named the Megalithic culture because of
the gigantic ("mega") stone ("lithic") structures they
designed and constructed. They developed one type of
structure as burial tombs and others as astronomical
observation sites. Their constructions demonstrate the
superior understanding they had of astronomy, engineering
and applied geometry.
The reasons for the structures seem to have been an
exploration into religion and science through the study of
the sun, moon and constellations and their relationship to
human life on the earth.
The tombs were communal inhumed burial sites and were
used by successive generations. The bodies were placed in
a fetal position. The tombs were built out of massive
upright rocks with a capstone or corbelled roof. The
Megalithic culture decorated many of the huge stones with
engravings and paintings of spirals, axes, boats, sun
symbols, animals, cup-and-ring marks, etc. Arrowheads,
pottery, copper daggers and other artifacts found at
numerous megalithic sites have drawn an association between
the Megalithic culture and that of the early Bell Beaker.
A simple chamber tomb was made from a number of
standing stones with one capstone and is called a dolmen.
When the chamber was enlarged into a rectangle with a
number of capstones it is called a gallery grave. Some
gallery graves have shelves or subchambers, as well as an
entrance. A chamber with a narrow passage or entrance is
called a passage grave. When any of these tombs are
covered with earth they are called barrows and when they
are covered with stones they are called cairns.
The Megalithic culture also erected individual
standing stones (menhirs) as markers for graves, mineral
deposits, boundaries and pathways. Standing stones
arranged in circles or in converging or parallel lines are
thought to have had religious or astronomical purposes.
The complexity of the construction of Stonehenge and
its location at the latitude where extreme sun and moon
positions are at right angles leads one to conclude that
the designers of the megalithic monuments were not simple
people. The distribution of their sites implies that they
were familiar with the ancient waterways and sailing in the
treacherous seas of the Atlantic, North Sea and the Baltic.
There are also megalithic constructions in the
Mediterranean regions, in the Balearic Islands, Corsica,
Sardinia, Italy, Malta, Israel and Lebanon. Recent dating
of sites has suggested that the spread of the Megalithic
sites was from west to east, contrary to previous belief.
NAME Mycenaean
ALTERNATIVE Achaeans / Danann / Mykenaean
EVOLVED FROM Kurgan ? Yamnaya ? Goidel ? Unetice ?
COUNTRY Ireland / England / Scotland / France / Germany
/ Czech / Slovakia / Hungary / Greece / Crete
LANDMARKS North Sea / Baltic / Balkan Peninsula / Aegean /
Seine / Carpathian
SITES Bonn / Brandenburg / Santorini / Troy
CENTERS Akrotiri / Mycenae
AGE Bronze
DATES BC 1900 / BC 1800-1200 / BC 1600-1100 / BC 15th-
12th c / BC 1470 / BC 1450 / BC 14th c /
BC 13th c / BC 1250 / BC 1240 / BC 1235-1190 /
BC 1200
LEADERS Agamemnon
SIGNATURE horse breeders / chariot warriors / shaft,
timber and bell graves / traders / spiral motif
/ faience beads / amber / precious metals
SEE ALSO Amazon / Celtic / Danann / Greek / Hittite /
Kurgan / Phoenician / Tumulus / Unetice /
Urnfield / Wessex / Yamnaya
REMARKS The Mycenaeans were a tall, fair-complexioned
people who spoke an Indo-European language, bred horses and
rode in war chariots. Around BC 1900 they raided into the
lower Balkan Peninsula where they pushed out the
Pelasgians. They then commanded the overland trade from
the North Sea to the southern Balkans and the surrounding
Aegean. The distribution of their earliest artifacts are
heaviest in Scotland and England in the west, and Czech
(Unetice), Slovakia in the center of Europe and the Aegean
in the East. Finds of later artifacts are heaviest in the
Aegean and in the Ukraine.
During BC 1800-1200, the Unetice-Tumulus herders were
expanding to the west and from BC 15th-12th century the
Tumulus-Urnfield were expanding to the east. The
Mycenaeans were clearly involved with these cultural
movements and may even have been a sub-division of one or
more of the groups.
The Mycenaeans had fortresses which were similar in
floor plan to those used in Anatolia from BC 4th millenium
on. They also buried their dead in bell-shaped tombs (bee-
hive) as well as in stone-lined graves with timber roofs
(shaft graves), similar to those of the Kurgan culture, but
the body was laid straight. The items found in these
warrior graves suggest that they originated outside the
Aegean world.
The burial tombs were also similar to the royal graves
of Alaca Huyuk in Anatolia. They depicted bearded
warriors, and many of their artifacts depicted hunting
scenes, wars, and hand-to-hand combat. The Mycenaeans
spoke an Indo-European language and many of their artifacts
were found in the territory of the Unetice Culture.
Between BC 1600-1100 the Mycenaeans became a dominant
force in the Balkans and subjected the Aeolian and Ionian
cultures. First they captured southeastern Greece and in
BC 1450 they captured Crete and destroyed Knossos.
Mycenaean bronze double axes dating from BC 13th
century have been found in Ireland and England. A
Mycenaean Middle Bronze Age hoard including daggers and
spiral-patterned leg guards was found at Seine-et-Marne in
France. Mycenaean objects have also been found in Wessex
and Cornwall in England; Bonn, Brandenburg and Saxony in
Germany; Danube and the Tisza plain in Hungary; and the
Carpathians in Slovakia. The Mycenaeans traded in amber,
produced numerous objects of gold and silver as well as
bronze, and knew the technique for producing glass faience
beads similar to those found in Egypt and Wessex, England.
In BC 1470 the Mycenaean island of Thera (Santorini)
in the Cyclades blew up in a volcanic explosion that caused
massive tidal waves in the Aegean. The settlement of
Akrotiri was covered with up to 900 ft (270 m) of ash. Ash
from the eruption has been found as far away as Greenland.
In BC 1250 the Mycenaeans, with the help of Amazon
mercenaries, attacked the fortresses of Troy and Troad and
were instrumental in the destruction of Troy in BC 1240.
The Mycenaean city of Mycenae in the region of Argolis
on the Peloponnesus had a tomb of the house of Atreus built
in BC 14th century. From BC 1235 to 1190 the Mycenaeans,
Hittites, Phoenicians and Egyptians came under relentless
attacks from the Sea People.
The city was destroyed around BC 1200 and was soon
followed by the collapse of the Mycenaean culture. The
destruction may have been a natural disaster or it may have
been due to incoming Dorians or Tumulus-Urnfield tribes who
became the dominant force in the southern Balkans. The
invading Dorians, fleeing from the Trojan war, were on the
side of Troy and thus already had enemy status. Mycenae
was the capital city of Agamemnon, high chieftain of the
Achaean warriors who fought against Troy.
Wilkens places the city named Mycenae as modern-day
Troyes on the Upper Seine river in France in the center of
Celtic territory and not the Mycenaean city on the
Peloponnesus.
NAME Neolithic
ALTERNATIVE New Stone Age
EVOLVED FROM Paleolithic
COUNTRY Palestine / Afghanistan / Iran / Iraq / Jordan /
Turkey / Scotland / Ukraine / Bulgaria / Romania
/ former Yugoslavia / Russia / Wales
LANDMARKS Strait of Bosporus
CENTERS Jericho / Hacilar / Catal Huyuk /
AGE Neolithic
DATES BC 9000 / BC 9th mill / BC 8600 / BC 7000 /
BC 6000 / BC 7th-6th mill / BC 6800 /
BC 6th mill / BC 5th mill / BC 4500 / BC 3800 /
BC 3rd mill
DEITIES snake goddess / bird goddess / mother goddess
SIGNATURE polished stone tools and weapons / fishing /
herding / farming / domesticated animals /
weaving / clay pottery & art objects / communal
graves / urban communities / wall murals
SEE ALSO Danubian / Kurgan / Megalithic / Yamnaya
REMARKS The Neolithic cultures of hunter/herder/fisher/
/farmer began to evolve from the Paleolithic cultures of
hunter/fisher/gatherer around BC 9000. The hunters of the
New Stone Age began to finish their tools and weapons by
grinding and polishing.
Choice of life styles also began to diversify as the
science of husbandry and horticulture began to evolve. The
increasing use of navigation and better boat-building
helped the development of fishing and trade as industries.
With the domestication of herd animals, people could
explore areas where hunting was not so viable. Increased
contacts with other groups of people enabled the exchange
of ideas, skills and goods. Evidence has shown that the
Neolithic people had already developed the ability to weave
cloth and make clay pottery and sculpture.
In BC 9th millenium, Proto-Neolithic gazelle hunters
from Palestine were living in oval and circular huts
measuring approximately 25 ft (8 m) in diameter. The
walls, which started below ground level, were plastered and
painted. At this time in Afghanistan, Iran and Iraq,
hunters began to domesticate goats and sheep.
Around BC 8600, proto-Neolithic gardeners built an
urban site at Jericho in Jordan with a population of 2000.
The communities had dwellings and defensive walls built of
sun-dried mud brick. The inside walls and floor of the
homes were plastered, painted and burnished. In BC 7000
Proto-Neolithic gardeners also built an urban center at
Hacilar in Turkey and by BC 6000 their artisans began to
decorate their pottery with paint.
In BC 7000 Neolithic hunters constructed a 25 ft (8 m)
circular dwelling at Grampian, Scotland and in BC 7000 a
Neolithic settlement of wooden dwellings was built at
Mountsandel in Ireland.
The true Neolithic farming culture seems to have
originated in modern-day Turkey (Anatolia) between BC 7th
and 6th millenium. Catal Huyuk is the oldest known
Neolithic site there and it covers 32 acres (13 hectares)
and is believed to have had 5000 inhabitants. They entered
the Chalcolithic stage when they began to cold-hammer
copper. They also used iron-ore pigment to enhance the
color of their pottery. The farming communities demanded a
larger population to work the fields, so the people had to
adjust to living in densely-packed urban centers. Their
buildings were made of sun-dried brick (adobe) and the
interior walls were painted in a manner resembling the
Paleolithic cave paintings. Animal horns and heads, as
well as representations carved or molded from plaster,
decorated some of the buildings. Sculptures of humans and
animals have been found carved or modelled from clay.
Archeological finds have included carved bone tools,
polished stone arrowheads, maces, and lances with tanged
obsidian heads. Other finds have included wooden vessels,
plain pottery, woven cloth, seashells for decorations and
indications of basket-weaving. Bones and murals show that
hunting was still being practiced.
Around BC 6800, Neolithic herders from Turkey drove
their cattle across the Strait of Bosporus and into Europe.
During BC 6th millenium, the world began to experience long
hot summers and short mild winters. The meltwater from the
retreating glaciers eventually brought the sea level up to
65 ft (20 m) below present-day levels. Large areas of land
were flooded while others sank without a trace. When the
weight of the glaciers was reduced, the land experienced
rebound effects which caused earthquakes. These
disruptions caused movement and change of lifestyle among
the Neolithic people.
In Moldavia and western Ukraine, archeological
evidence from BC 6th millenium has uncovered sculptures of
deities including a snake goddess, bird goddess and the
great mother. Also found were sculptures of a bear, bee,
bird, butterfly, deer, dog and toad. The people were
accomplished weavers and potters. One style of bowl was of
a hemispherical shape painted in red and white decorations
and highly burnished. Infants who died were buried in egg-
shaped clay vessels.
Artisans in Bulgaria, Romania and former Yugoslavia
entered the Chalcolithic Age when they began to cold-hammer
surface copper into shapes. During this time period,
Neolithic farmers from Turkey crossed the strait of
Bosporus and settled in the lower Balkans. Early traces of
Neolithic farming have also been found in Scotland where
the temperature was warm and the soil was fertile.
During Neolithic times, the dead were usually buried
in communal graves under mounds of earth, but during BC 5th
millenium an aberration called the Megalithic culture
developed in the Atlantic region of Europe. The burial
tombs and astronomical observation sites of this culture
showed that they had a superior understanding of applied
geometry, astronomy and engineering.
In BC 5th millenium, the Neolithic people of Bulgaria
were working gold. Neolithic people also began to farm the
Danube valley where they developed the Danubian slash-and-
burn farming method. They spread this concept across
Europe.
In BC 4500 Neolithic herders of the Ukraine and
Russian steppes were taming wild horses and Neolithic dairy
herders from present-day Iraq drove their herds into Europe
and North Africa. In BC 3800 Neolithic cattle herders
built their dwellings on an extinct volcano in Wales.
By BC 3rd millenium the incoming herders of the Kurgan
culture from the north, the Yamnaya culture from the east
and the Bell Beaker hunters from the south quickly brought
the Neolithic population of Europe into the Bronze Age.
NAME Phoenician
ALTERNATIVE Canaanite / Kenaani / Kinahna
EVOLVED FROM Semite
COUNTRY Syria / Lebanon / Israel / Egypt / Morocco /
Spain / Tunisia / Portugal / Balearic Islands /
Malta / Sicily / Cyprus
CENTERS Baalbek / Ruad / Beirut / Jebeil / Sidon / Ras
Shamra / Tyre / Lixus / Cadiz / Tartessus /
Utica / Lisbon / Carthage / Nora / Culcis
/
Ibiza
TERRITORY Phoenicia
LANDMARKS Orontes river / Persian Gulf / Mediterranean /
Atlantic / Baltic Sea / Africa / America
AGE Bronze / Iron
DATES BC 3000 / BC 1400 / BC 1235-1190 / BC 1230 /
BC 1210 / BC 12th century / BC 1100 / BC 814 /
BC 800 / BC 654 / BC 610 / BC 6th c / BC 345 /
BC 332
DEITIES Bel {Baal} (Beel/Belenos) / Astarte
SIGNATURE Semitic language / Caucasian / seafaring traders
/ city-states / trading centers / alphabet /
purple dye / glass objects / precious metals /
musical pipes / sun/moon worship
SEE ALSO Celtic / Carthaginian / Hittites / Mycenaean /
Tartessian / Torc Bearers
REMARKS The Phoenicians were Caucasian of the Canaanite
branch of the northern Semites. They were described as
long-headed, medium height, with tawny-white skin color,
black curly hair and a straight or aquiline nose on an
oval-shaped face.
The proto-Phoenicians migrated from the Persian Gulf
around BC 3000 because of disintergrating climatic
conditions. Some resettled along the Mediterranean coast
of present-day Syria, Lebanon and Israel. Here they
conquered the indigenous seafaring people and evolved into
the Phoenicians. It is believed that they navigated by
using the Pole Star. They jealously guarded the secrets of
the trade winds, ocean currents and their trade routes.
The Phoenicians spoke a Semitic language (non-Indo-
European) and by BC 1400 they were using a cuneiform
version of the Canaanite 22-letter alphabet which was a
link between Egyptian and modern writing. The method was
much later adopted by the Greeks and became the format for
the proto-Roman alphabet. The Phoenicians themselves
credited the Celtic alphabet as the source of all Western
alphabets.
The Phoenician religion revolved around Bel {Baal} the
sun god and Astarte the moon goddess. Bel was portrayed as
a young warrior wearing a helmet with bull's horns. Their
religion involved the practice of human (adult/infant)
sacrifice and the participation of temple priestesses
(prostitutes). Baalbek (City of Bel) in Syria was located
at the headwaters of Orontes river and became a major
center for the worship of Bel {Baal}. The river flowed to
Tyre and was an early trade route of the Phoenician. The
Syrian city of Ugarit (Ras Shamra) was a famous trading
center with another temple to Astare and Bel {Baal}. The
city had early connections with the Torc Bearers, Hittites
and Mycenaeans before it was destroyed by the Sea People in
BC 1200.
Phoenician society was structured around trade rather
than conquest and they developed a enormous sphere of
influence by opening many trading centers in foreign lands
as well as keeping a home base of city-states. The most
important of these were Arvad (Ruad), Berot (Beirut),
Byblos (Jebeil), Sidon, and the island fortress of Tyre. By
the end of BC 27th century Byblos was carring on intensive
trade with Egypt.
The Phoenicians exported wood of cedar and pine,
purple dye made from the murex snail, linen cloth,
embroideries, glass, glazed faience, metal items, salt,
dried fish and wine. They would trade these and other
product for papyrus, amber, precious stones, jewels,
silver, gold, ebony, ivory, silk, furs, copper, tin,
ostrich eggs, spices, incense, horses, salted animals and
fish etc.
During the time of the Trojan wars, the Phoenicians
expanded their trading centers through the Mediterranean
and out into the Atlantic, but between from BC 1235 to BC
1190 they were under attack by the Sea People.
In BC 1230 they established a trading center at Lixus
in Morocco, and in BC 1210 at Gades (Cadiz) in Spain. Also
around this time the Phoenicians of Tyre founded a colony
in Spain near present-day Huelva (Tartessus). The city was
named after its founder Tartessos and the people became
known as the Tartessians.
During BC 12th century the Phoenicians had frequent
battles with the Egyptians, and with the demise of the
Mycenaeans, the Phoenicians captured most of the trade from
the eastern Mediterranean and Cyprus. In BC 1100 trading
centers were established at Utica in Tunisia and Alis Llppo
(Lisbon) in present-day Portugal. In BC 814 Dido, the
daughter of the ruler of Tyre, founded Carthage.
By BC 800 the Phoenicians were trading iron weapons,
tools and utensils into North Africa and they already had
long-established trade routes from the Mediterranean into
the Atlantic as far north as the Baltic Sea and west to
America. They called Britain and Ireland the Cassiterides
(Tin Isles). By BC 7th century the Phoenicians had trading
posts on Malta and at Nora and Culcis in Sicily. In BC
654, a trading center was established on the Balearic
island of Ibiza in the Mediterranean near the east coast of
Spain.
In BC 610, Phoenician sailors circumnavigated Africa
and knew of the Azores, Cape Verde, Madagascar and the
Spice Islands. The vastness of their commercial ties gave
them the opportunity to unite different ideas and to refine
artistic styles and techniques. The Phoenicians used a
purple dye they made from a shellfish called Murex. They
were known for their glasswork, engraved and embossed gold
and silver sheet metal work, and ivory carvings. They also
spread the use of musical pipes through their trading
centers.
Because of the expansion of the Babylonian and Persian
empires, the Phoenician homeland cities were put under
increasing strain to retain their independence. During BC
6th century, the island fortress of Tyre held out for 13
years against Babylonian rule. In BC 345 the 40,000
inhabitants of Sidon committed mass suicide rather than
face domination by the Persians. Finally in BC 332, Tyre
fell to the army of Alexander of Macedonia, spelling the
end of the Phoenicians' supremacy of the seas. The trading
center at Carthage in Tunisia subsequently became a major
influence in Mediterranean affairs.
NAME Pictish
ALTERNATIVE Agathyrsi / Picti (Latin) / Pretani, Prettania,
Pritani, Priteni (Greek) / Pictillus, Pictilus,
Pistillus (Gallic) / Peithwyr, Prydein, Prydyn,
(Brythonic) / Gwyddl Ffichti (Welsh) /
Cruithnig, Crutihnigh, Cruithine, Cruithne,
Cruittne, Gaedel Ficht (Irish) / Qurteni,
Qartani, Qretani, Quruithnii (Scottish)
EVOLVED FROM Tumulus-Urnfield / Illyrian / Thracian
COUNTRY Turkey / Czech / Germany / France / England /
Wales / Ireland / Scotland
REGION Meath / Donegal
TERRITORY Thrace / Pretani Island / Aremorica
LANDMARKS Balkan Peninsula / Strait of Bosporus / Black
Sea / North Sea / Mediterranean
SITES Istanbul / York / Wexford Bay /
Knockfarrel
AGE Bronze / Iron
DATES BC 15th-12th c / BC 15th c / BC 13th c /
BC 7th c / BC 6th c / BC 4th c / BC 210 /
BC 1st c / AD 296 / AD 297 / AD 4th c / AD 306
/ AD 386 / AD 4th c / AD 5th c / AD 842 /
AD 1763-1775
LEADERS Hu Gardarn / Cruithnechan / Cineath mac Ailpin
SIGNATURE Alpine stock / matrilineal / cattle herders /
tattoos / timber-laced forts / horse warriors /
chariot warriors / Q/P-Celts / milk bath / hide
ivy-leaf shields / bagpipes
SEE ALSO Aremorican / Briton / Celtic / Danann / Goidel /
Hittite / Illyrian / Thracian / Tumulus /
Urnfield
REMARKS Around BC 15th-12th centuries, Tumulus-Urnfield
warriors adventured westward toward the Atlantic and
eastward to Thrace and Illyria. The warriors then crossed
the Strait of Bosporus through Asia Minor and wreaked havoc
throughout Syria, Palestine, and as far south as Egypt
where they became a part of the Sea People.
The story of the return by some of the groups of these
multi-cultural warriors to the west coast of Europe is
preserved in Welsh mythology. The warriors travelled from
the Near East to The Land of Hav (Land of Summer) on the
shore of the Black Sea around Istanbul. From there, Hu
Gardarn divided the people into tribes (Defrobani -
awakening of the banners) and led them across the continent
of Europe until they reached the North Sea "Mor Tawch"
(Ocean of Fog). Most likely they travelled the well-used
route up the Danube to the Rhine.
In Germany they divided into two groups with one
travelling south into Gaul where the heaviest concentration
settled in Aremorica and to the south. The second group
settled between the Danube, Rhine and Main in what has been
referred to as the "Celtic Cradle". The "Celtic Cradle"
was the land mass between the Elbe and the Rhine rivers
stretching from the North Sea lowlands into the highland
surrounding the Danube of Germany and Czech. Celtic tribes
continued to pour forth from this cradle into the La Tčne
period.
In BC 13th century warriors of these tribes travelled
to England where they became known as the Pretani (Picts).
Here they became involved in a war and helped in the defeat
of Troy. Some established themselves around present-day
York in England while others settled in Scotland. The
island became known as "Ynys Prydain" (Pretani Island) or
the Island of the Picts.
The Picts were a matrilineal Alpine cattle-people who
liked the thinner forests which grew on the poorer soils.
Their warriors of both sexes used warpaint and carried long
spears and ivy-leaf-shaped shields made from white ox-
hides. They used both horses and horse-drawn chariots to
move about. Like the Illyrians and the Thracians, Picts
tattooed their bodies with images of beasts, symbols and
patterns. One particularly characteristic type of tattoo
was that of interlocking rings around the eyes. The Irish
word "cruth" and the Welsh word "pryd" both mean form. The
Picts practiced totemism and performed ritual sexual acts
under the scrutiny of the tribe. It seems quite possible
that the Pictish culture spread the use of the bagpipes
which they adopted from the Hittites while in the east.
This was also a likely time for their language to go
through the process of changing from Q-Celt to P-Celt.
Goidel mythology mentions another group of Tumulus-
Urnfield who in BC 15th century came from Thrace. They
were led by 6 chieftains; Solen, Upla, Nechtan, Drostan,
Oengus and Lethend who were brothers. They settled at
Poitiers in Gaul but left after the death of Lethend and
voyaged to Ireland. Their sister died in route before they
landed at Wexford Bay in the ancient province of Leinster.
This group of warriors called themselves Agathyrsi and
claimed descent from Gelonus, son of Hercules. In Ireland
they were called Cruithne.
The Picts were made welcome in Ireland by Crimthann
Sciathbel of the Fir Domnann who had been appointed head
chieftain of Leinster by Eremon. Drostan the Druid had the
knowledge to revive those wounded by the poisoned weapons
of the Tuath Fidga, another group who were settled on the
Island. He used the milk from 140 white hornless kine to
make a magic healing bath.
During the battle of Lemnachta with the Tuath Fidga
Drostan, Solen, Upla and Nechtan were killed as well as
their head chieftain Domnall mac Ailpin. Cathluan son of
Gub became the new head chieftain of the Picts and his sons
Catanolodar and Catanlachan were their two champions. Cing
and Imm were the two sages, Uaisnem was their poet, Crus
and Ciric were their two warriors and Cruithnechan was the
artificer.
The Picts began to become a threat to the Goidel so
Eremon banished them from Ireland and sent them to Albainn
(Scotland/northern England). Goidel mythology said that he
allowed them to take Goidel women widowed by their war with
the Danann because successions with the Picts were through
the female line.
The Picts were small in number but they may have been
carrying iron weapons or at least superior bronze.
Cruithnechan's 7 sons sailed with their people to Scotland
where they divided the followers into 7 tribes. There they
were called the Quruithnii. Many of the Pictish leaders
had Welsh (Brythonic) names, and the Cornavii of the
Caithness region of Scotland were related to the Cornavii
of England.
By BC 7th century the northwest of Ireland was settled
by Picts who had returned to Ireland or had never left. At
the same time, other Picts were building timber-laced forts
north of the Tay and at Knockfarrel near Dingwall.
In BC 6th century, Pictish warriors from Brittany
(Llydaw) in Gaul were led by a chieftain named Prydain to
England (Lloegr), where they became known as the Britons.
They brought the La Tčne A culture with them. In BC 4th
century, more Picts arrived in Ireland and settled in
Ulster. In BC 210 the Pictish chieftain Argentocoxos
formed a treaty with Rome on behalf of the Caledonii of
Scotland.
In BC 1st century, Caesar called the Picts of England
"aborigines" because they had been there long before the
Belgae. He reported that the people in the interior did
not grow grain but lived on milk and meat, and wore skins.
All Britons used woad on their bodies to draw blue designs.
They wore their hair long and shaved all their body except
their upper lip. Women had mating rites with a group of
males, especially the husband's brothers and his sons by
another woman. The children were credited to the first
husband.
The name "Pict" was first used in AD 296 by the Romans
to describe the local Celts of Britain. The name was used
again in AD 297 to differentiate local tribes from the
Hiberni and Briton, and in AD 306 used in reference to the
Caledonii and other tribes in Scotland. In AD 386, the
Dicalydonas and Verturiones are described as being Pictish
tribes who were creating great havoc. All through AD 4th
century, Pictish tribes of Scotland and Ireland were
attacking Wales and England.
During AD 5th century, the Dal Riada of the Goidel
culture of Ireland began to invade the west coast of
Scotland (Pictavia) and take land away from the Picts.
These Goidel became known as the Scotti (Irish). Pictish
dominance in Scotland came to an end when Cineath mac
Ailpin became the Ard-Righ Albainn in AD 842. During the
Dark Ages, the Picts of the west coast of Scotland were Q-
Celts and referred to as Gwyddl Ffichti (Goidel Picts) by
the Welsh and Gaedel Ficht (Goidel Picts) to the Irish. On
the east coast were the P-Celt Picts and were referred to
as Peithwyr (Children of the Pine) by the Welsh. The pine
tree represents the letter P in the Celtic alphabet.
The biggest and final blow to the Picts of Albainn
came between 1763-1775 AD when the English herded them into
ships and sent them to colonies in Nova Scotia, Canada and
the eastern USA. Over the next one hundred years the
attempt at ethnic cleansing sent the Pictish highlanders to
Australia and New Zealand as well.
NAME Roman
EVOLVED FROM Latini
COUNTRY Italy / France / Spain / Tunisia / Lybia /
Morroco / Luxembourg / Belgium / Greece /
Algeria / Bulgaria / Turkey /
Syria / Lebanon /
Israel / Egypt / Britain / Wales / Yugoslavia /
Cyprus / Switzerland / Portugal / Austria /
Hungary / Romania / Germany
TERRITORY Latium
LANDMARKS Tiber / Apennines / Mediterranean
CENTERS Rome
AGE Iron
DATES BC 753 / BC 6th c / BC 390 / BC 338 / BC 3rd c /
BC 2nd c / BC 1st c / AD 98-117 / AD 476
DEITIES Romulus / Mars / Rhea Silvia
LEADERS Caesar / Trajan
SIGNATURE urban farmers / military state / imperialists /
male-oriented society
SEE ALSO Carthaginian / Celtic / Etruscan / Gallic /
Germani / Greek / Ligurian
REMARKS In BC 753, Rome was established as an outpost
for the confederation of Latini tribes who were land-hungry
farmers. Roman mythology indicates that Rome was founded
by Romulus, son of Mars (the war god) and Rhea Silvia (the
virgin). By BC 6th century it was a union of settlements
on top of seven hills surrounded by a defensive wall.
During this time it was ruled by the Etruscans. In the
following centuries, a political system developed in which
the head of state was a commander-in-chief of the army with
authority in all civil and religious affairs. The leaders
of Rome began to dominate the surrounding regions, but in
BC 390 Celtic warriors under the leadership of Brennius
devastated the center and held it for ransom.
Rome rebuilt its walls and continued warring with its
neighbors until by BC 338 it was in control of all the
other city-states of the Latin League. Soldiers of Rome
then conquered the Greek cities of southwestern Italy
because they were situated on the fertile soil. The next
major objective for Rome was to subdued their old enemies
of the peninsula, the Etruscans.
By the end of BC 3rd century, Rome had gained
tentative control of the entire Italian peninsula. The
Ligurians and Gallic Celts in the north regions refused to
submit totally, and the Greeks of the south considered the
Romans to be barbarians and tried to throw off the yoke of
oppression by bringing an army from Epirus under Pyrrhus.
Roman activities in the south brought them into
conflict with their former allies, the Carthaginians. This
led to three Punic wars which saw the end of Carthaginian
influence and the beginning of Roman expansion outside
Italy during BC 2nd century. The Romans now controlled
territory in southern Gaul, Iberia, and North Africa.
During BC 1st century a revenge-driven Caesar
mercilessly conquered most of Celtic Gaul, annihilating
entire tribes. The Germani on the other side of the Rhine
had their ranks swelled by fleeing Celtic warriors. During
the next few centuries, all the areas touching the
Mediterranean and Europe including England and Wales fell
to the Roman program of domination and domestication.
Between AD 98-117 Trajan, the soldier-emperor, Rome
reached its greatest extent geographically. Ireland,
Scotland, Netherlands, Poland, Czech, Slovakia and most of
Germany were the only western European countries with
Celtic populations to remain free of the Roman yoke.
By AD 476 Rome was dead as an empire, weakened both
from internal rot and from continuous attacks from the
Germani tribes that they admired as warriors but had always
feared.
NAME Sarmatian
ALTERNATIVE Sarmatae
EVOLVED FROM Indo-Iranian or Slav
COUNTRY Ukraine / Russia
TERRITORY central Asia
LANDMARKS Urals / Don River / Black Sea / Carpathians /
AGE Iron
DATES BC 6th c / BC 5th c / BC 4th c / BC 2nd c /
AD 1st c / AD 2nd - 4th c / AD 370
DEITIES fire
SIGNATURE herders / horse warriors / archers / lances /
swords / male and female warriors / matriarchal
/ fire worshippers / horse sacrifice / traders /
SEE ALSO Dacian / Germani / Greek / Scythian
REMARKS During BC 6th century the Sarmatian tribes
migrated, possibly from central Asia, to the western
foothills of the Ural mountain range. By BC 5th century
they were established on the great plain north of the Black
Sea from the Urals to the Don river. During BC 4th century
they crossed the Don river and engaged the Scythians in
their own territory. By the end of BC 2nd century, the
Sarmatians had conquered most of southern Russia and
Ukraine to the Carpathians. By AD 1st century they had
control of the majority of the Scythian territory.
The Sarmatians were semi-nomadic cattle herders and
spent most of their time hunting and tending their cattle.
They were horse warriors who fought from the backs of their
horse using both sharp-pointed long lances and long swords
as well as bows and arrows. Unlike the Scythians,
Sarmatian society was matriarchal and the females were
champion warriors who could not marry until they had killed
an enemy in battle.
The Sarmatians worshipped fire and sacrificed horses.
Their early graves were simple but later, as they became
more sedentary (as they settled), they became richer with
grave goods. Grave sites of female warriors near the Don
river river have contained such items as scaled trousers,
horse armor and composite bows. The graves may have held
Sarmatian or Amazon warriors. It is possible that the two
groups had a common ancestry.
The Sarmatians had artisans who excelled in pottery,
metal-smithing and the tanning of hides. They also traded
honey, furs, grain, fish and metal between the Greek
colonies on the north shore of the Black Sea and the
borderlands of China.
In AD 2nd-4th century, the Sarmatians became allies
with the Germani and raided the Dacian tribes in Romania.
In AD 370, the invading Huns eliminated many of the
Sarmatians in Russia and the rest fled westward and were
assimilated into other cultures.
NAME Scythian
COUNTRY Russia / Ukraine / Hungary / Germany
TERRITORY Scythia {Sithia}
LANDMARKS Altai Mountains / Volga / Carpathians / Black
Sea / Caucasus / Russian-Ukraine steppes /
Balkan Peninsula / Hungarian Plain
AGE Bronze / Iron
DATES BC 9th c / BC 8th c / BC 611 / BC 6th c / BC 512
/ BC 4th-3rd c / BC 3rd c
DEITIES Tabiti-Hestia
SIGNATURE horse warriors / torcs / archers / chain mail /
round shields / leg knife / throwing axe / spear
/ shamans / fishers / head & scalp hunters /
hemp inhalers / skull-cup / nomads / yurts /
covered wagons / fire worship / richly
ornamented articles / male-oriented society
SEE ALSO Celtic / Cimmerian / Germani / Hallstatt /
Kurgan / La Tčne / Sarmatian / Thracian
REMARKS The Scythians were Indo-European speaking horse-
warriors. In BC 9th century they were dislodged from their
territory east of the Altai Mountains by the Hsiung-nu and
the Massagetai peoples who were retreating before a Chinese
army. Unlike most horse warriors of the time, the
Scythians preferred to fight from the back of the horse
rather than dismounting for combat. They were superior
horsemen, keeping herds of Mongolian ponies and the highly-
prized Fergana horses, which they decorated with gold and
other ornamented horse trappings. They sat on decorated
saddles made of felt cushions mounted on wooden frames, and
they rested their feet in leather supports.
The Scythians wore torcs, bronze helmets and chain
mail. They carried swords with curved blades and decorated
hilts and cross-guards. Their swords and sometimes the
scabbards were made of bronze or gold, depending on the
time period. Their shields were usually round and made of
leather, wood or iron decorated with animal designs in
sheet gold. They wore short daggers strapped to the left
leg, carried socketed kelt throwing axes and spears or
standards that were decorated with real and imaginary
animals. Their main weapon was the unequal recurved bow
carried in a case on the horse. They shot a 3-sided
arrowhead made of bronze, iron or bone. The Scythians were
deadly accurate from horseback and had a trick of firing to
the rear while they were riding away.
The Scythians had a blood brotherhood and lived a
semi-nomadic life style that revolved around fishing,
hunting, herding and warring. They were nature worshippers
with tribal shamans and their main deity was a female named
Tabiti-Hestia, the patron of fire and beasts. The
Scythians praticed a purification ritual which they held in
a small tent of leather or felt. A small cauldron of hot
stones was placed in the tent, hemp was thrown onto the
stones and the vapor was inhaled.
Scythian clothing was embroidered, appliqued and
decorated with embossed gold plaques. They wore gold
torcs, armlets, tall caps, trousers tucked into high soft
boots and cloaks of animal skins. They carried a ritual
cup on their belt made from the skull of an enemy. They
ornamented the skull with gold and used it for the ritual
drinking of blood with their brothers. They also collected
scalps.
Their homes were felt-covered yurts outfitted with
wall-hangings, felt cushions, mattresses, woven carpets,
wooden tables with carved legs and wooden blocks for stools
and headrests. The women occupied an underprivileged
position in Scythian society. When on the move they lived
in oxen-drawn
covered wagons with solid wheels. They herded
cattle, ate wild animals, horse, oxen haggis, beans, onions,
and soured mares' milk, and cooked in metal cauldrons on
pedestals over a fire.
By BC 8th century, the Scythians were situated around
the mouth of the Volga river and began to migrated west
across the Russian-Ukraine steppes and into the territory
of the Cimmerians (the Caucasus and the plains north of the
Black Sea) where they displaced them. Some tribes migrated
farther west across the Carpathians and into the Hungarian
Plain.
Scythian tribes allied themselves with the Assyrians
and raided as far south as Egypt in BC 611. In BC 512 they
used the scorched-earth tactic to hold off an invasion of
Hungary by Darius the Persian. In BC 6th century,
Scythians travelled north and west into the territory of
the Hallstatt and the Germani. This may have been a
catalyst for the development of the Celtic La Tčne culture.
Around BC 4th-3rd century the Scythians invaded the
southern Balkans and mixed with the Thracians, bringing
about a Thraco-Scythian style of art. In BC 3rd century,
eastward-moving tribes of the La Tčne culture mixed with
Scythians, producing Celto-Scythian culture. By AD 1st
century the time of the Scythians was over and they were
being driven out of their territory by the Sarmatian.
NAME Tartessian
ALTERNATIVE Tartessus / Tartessos / Tarshish
EVOLVED FROM Goidel / Thracian / Phoenician
COUNTRY Spain
REGION Valencia / Andalucía / Murcia
LANDMARKS Atlantic / Mediterranean / Guadiana /
Guadalquivir / Gates of Baal / Sierra
Nevada
SITES Alalia / Seville
CENTERS Tartessus / Cartagena (Mastia)
AGE Bronze / Iron
DATES BC 12th c / BC 7th c / BC 600 / BC 535 / BC 500
LEADERS Tartessos / Arganthonios
SIGNATURE sea traders / miners / manufacturers / glass /
silver
SEE ALSO Carthage / Celtic / Etruscan / Greek /
Phoenician / Thracian
REMARKS The Tartessian culture claimed two origins: that
it evolved from a colony of Phoenicians from Tyre, founded
by Tartessos in BC 12th century in the vicinity of present-
day Seville in southern Spain, and that it was founded by
Thracians from Bithynia on the Asia Minor side of the
strait of Bosporus (Bistones). It is probable that both
are true and that each had a trading center which
contributed to a mixed culture. The western end of the
territory was already settled by Goidel Celts, with whom
they intermingled.
The territory expanded to include all of southern
Spain from Mastia (Cartagena) on the Mediterranean coast,
along the Guadalquivir river to the Gulf of Cadiz on the
Atlantic side. It included one of the gates of Baal
(Hercules) in the middle at the southern point.
The southern tribes traded mostly with the Phoenicians
and the centers on the eastern coast came under the
influence of the Greeks in BC 6th century as they expanded
into the western Mediterranean.
The Tartessian territory was rich in copper, silver
and gold. They mined the metals, then manufactured and
exported finished goods such as metal vessels, jewelry,
richly decorated weapons, bronze sculptures, items of glass
and objects of ivory.
The Tartessian influence began to decline in BC 7th
century when the Carthaginians began to develop their
empire along the Mediterranean coast of Spain. The
Tartessians came under the rule of the Celtic chieftain
Arganthonios around BC 600. He ruled for eighty years and
was rich enough from the famous silver mines to help the
Phoenician by supporting the Greek Phoceans against Persia
in a war on the island of Cyprus.
The Tartessian culture was further weakened in BC 535
when they and the Phocean Greeks lost a naval battle of
Alalia in Corsica against the Etruscans and the
Carthaginians. Tartessus, the Tartessian capital, was
destroyed by their kin the Carthaginians around BC 500.
NAME Thracian
EVOLVED FROM Danubian / Yamnaya / Tumulus-Urnfield
COUNTRY Bulgaria / Greece / Turkey / Spain
TERRITORY Thrace / Bithynia
LANDMARKS Bosporus / Balkan Peninsula
CENTERS Adra / Polystilo or Asperosa / Tyle
AGE Neolithic / Bronze / Iron
DATES BC 3000 / BC 15th-12th c / BC 12th c / BC 8th c
/ BC 7th c / BC 5th-4th c / BC 4th c / BC 3rd c
/ BC 101 / BC 1st c.
SIGNATURE wife buried with chieftain / chariot burials /
grave goods / tattoos / hillfort-villages /
horse warriors / chariot warriors / goldsmiths
SEE ALSO Celtic / Cimmerian / Danubian / Hittite /
Illyrian / Neolithic / Phoenician / Pictish /
Roman / Scythian / Tartessian / Tumulus /
Urnfield / Yamnaya
REMARKS The Proto-Thracian culture began to form around
BC 3000 on the southeastern Balkan Peninsula when the
Neolithic population (Danubian) was invaded by tribes of
the Yamnaya culture from the Russian steppes. The Irish
Lebor Gabála Érenn mentions that the Thracians descented
from Thiras son of Iafeth. The Thracian culture developed
into a warrior society headed by chieftains with religious
leaders and practices similar to those of the Brahmins of
India, the Magi of the Persians and the Druids of Ireland.
Thracian tumulus graves of chieftains reveals a
practice of the ritual death of the chieftain's head wife,
an indication of sacrifice. Chariot burials were
accompanied by grave goods including iron swords, bronze
arrows, drinking vessels and gold jewelry. Thracian
artisans were highly sought after for their gold work, a
profession practiced in the area of the Black Sea near
Varna, Bulgaria since BC 5th millenium.
Thracians used horses both for riding and to pull
four-wheeled wagons. They lived in villages within
hillforts and, like the Picts and Illyrians, tattooed their
bodies.
Between BC 15th-12th century, Tumulus-Urnfield
warriors passed through Thracian territory on their way to
Anatolia. It is highly probable that young Thracian
warriors joined with them and were members of the Sea
People who raided the Hittite and Egyptian empires.
The Bistones, a Thracian tribe from near Abdera
(Polystilo or Asperosa) in Bithynia, Turkey were credited
with the founding of the Tartessian culture in southern
Spain around BC 12th century, probably in conjunction with
Phoenicians from Tyre. The town of Abdera (present-day
Adra) in Almeria suggests that the Bistones were in control
of the central/eastern part of the new territory.
By the end of BC 8th century, the Thracians were
feeling the effect of the Scythian push against the
Cimmerians to the northeast. The incoming Cimmerians gave
them new information in art and weaponry, and the time
period is known as Thraco-Cimmerian. In BC 7th century,
Thracian warriors joined with Cimmerian warriors in Turkey
to attempt to fight off the Scythians. The Thraco-
Cimmerians conqurered a territory across the Strait of
Bosporus on the Asia Minor side.
During BC 5th-4th centuries, the Scythians made a
violent intrusion into Thracian territory. The fusion
resulted in a Thraco-Scythian art form plus new technology
in iron working. In BC 4th century, Philip II of Macedonia
conquered land in Thrace and used its gold mines as a
source of revenue.
By BC 3rd century, some of the La Tčne Celts were
invading the Balkan Pensinula on their way to Anatolia, and
mingled with the Thracians when some settled at Tyle. In
BC 101, Thracians and Celts raided the Phocean Greek
sanctuary of Delphi, sacking it for whatever treasures were
left. At the end of that century, the Thracians were
fighting a losing battle against Rome, and by BC 1st
century they had become a province of the Roman Empire and
their culture came to an end.
NAME Torc Bearer
EVOLVED FROM Neolithic
COUNTRY Lebanon / Syria / Yugoslavia / Czech / Slovakia
/ Hungary / Austria / Germany / Italy
REGION Bohemia
LANDMARKS Adriatic
CENTERS Ras Shamra (Ugarit) / Jebeil (Byblos)
AGE Chalcolithic / Bronze
DATES BC 2100 / BC 1800
SIGNATURE metal-workers / massive copper torcs / spiral
motif
SEE ALSO Celtic / Hittites / Mycenaeans / Scythian /
Unetice
REMARKS The Torc Bearers were metal workers who were
named for the massive copper torcs which they wore around
their necks. These were made from 1/4" (6 mm) round rods
with the ends flattened and rolled into a curl.
In BC 2100, the Chalcolithic Torc Bearers were living
in Ugarit (Ras Shamra), Syria and Byblos (Jebeil), Lebanon.
Here they specialized in the production of spiral
bracelets, club-shaped pins of gold and silver and the
massive ingot torcs of copper. The city of Ugarit was a
Phoenician trading center with early connections to the
Hittites and Mycenaeans.
Around BC 1800, natural disasters started these people
moving up the Adriatic and into central Europe. They
carried with them their metal-working abilities into the
early Bronze Age of the Unetice culture. Their influence
was felt in Czech, Slovakia, Hungary, former Yugoslavia,
Austria, Germany and Italy. The Scythians, Celts and
others copied their torcs as neckware.
NAME Tumulus
ALTERNATIVE Hugelgraberkultur
EVOLVED FROM Unetice
COUNTRY Czech / Germany / Austria / Switzerland /
Belgium / Netherlands / England / Wales /
Scotland / Ireland / France / Hungary / Spain ?
LANDMARKS Alps / Channel / North Sea / Baltic Sea
AGE Bronze
DATES BC 1800-1200 / BC 15th-12th c
DEITIES sun god / fire goddess
SIGNATURE single grave tumuli / horse warriors / cattle-
herders / fortified villages / swastika
SEE ALSO Aremorican / Celtic / Goidel / Kurgan /
Phoenician / Unetice / Urnfield / Wessex
REMARKS The Tumulus culture was recognized for its use
of the single grave with a covering mound. The warriors of
the Tumulus culture were highland horse-riding cattle-
herders and lived in fortified villages. Like their
predecessors the Unetice, the Tumulus culture was well-
situated to receive stimuli from other regions via the
established overland trade routes.
Between BC 1800 to BC 1200, Unetice-Tumulus highland
warriors began to appear in the west of Europe. They were
well-armed and they spread the use of the tumulus from
Bohemia to the Rhine north of the Main, then into
Switzerland, Belgium, Britain and Ireland. The tumulus was
in vogue for most of Europe during the Middle Bronze Age.
The tumuli of the Tumulus culture were very similar to
those of the Goidel, Unetice, Wessex and Aremorican in form
but in content and number they were quite different. Grave
evidence has shown that the four groups were different
cultures practicing a similar burial style.
The Bavarian group was recognized for its bronze
swords with solid hilts. Excavation of the tumuli of
Hungary exposed battle axes, while the Danube groups were
noted for sickle-shaped dress pins and baked clay altars
with decorations of horn, boats and triangles. The tumuli
of eastern France revealed bodies lying on their back in an
east-west direction with the head toward the rising sun.
Grave goods included pottery with designs reminiscent of
the older wooden cups. Boars were an important part of the
grave goods in France. In the north, objects of sun
worship have been found.
The early tumulus graves contained inhumed bodies but
later graves contained cremated bodies as the transition to
the Urnfield culture began. The gods were shown as symbols
rather than abstracted images. The sun god was represented
by the sun wheel or the left-facing swastika of the Kurgan
culture, which was used by the Celts and others from India
to Ireland. The fire goddess was represented by the
triangle or the right-facing swastika.
The people of the Tumulus culture developed a
profitable bronze industry in weapons, jewelry and tools.
During BC 15th-12th centuries, Tumulus-Urnfield warriors
raided east through Thrace and Illyria, crossed the Strait
of Bosporus to Anatolia, then wreaked havoc in Syria,
Palestine, and Egypt.
The Egyptians referred to this group as the Sea People
and many of them worked as mercenaries for the Phoenicians
who were developing their commercial trade route throughout
the Mediterranean and into the Atlantic. They were
described as ferocious warriors who wore their hair in a
very stiff style.
NAME Unetice
ALTERNATIVE Aunjetitz
EVOLVED FROM Yamnaya / Bell Beaker / Ligurian / Torc Bearers
COUNTRY Germany / Czech / Slovakia
REGION Rhine Valley / Bohemia
LANDMARKS Alps
SITES Unetice
CENTERS Prasklice
AGE Bronze
DATES BC 3000 / BC 1800-1200 / BC 1500
DEITIES bee goddess
SIGNATURE round barrows / single burial / burial jars /
ochre death powder / pastoral / lost wax process
/ honey bees / mead / wooden stake defense walls
/ hillforts / Q-Celt / horse warriors / stone
and wooden plows / copper ingot torcs /
geometric design / moon-shaped neck ware /
abstract art
SEE ALSO Aremorican / Argaric / Battle Axe / Bell Beaker
Celt / Goidel / Kurgan / Ligurian / Mycenaean /
Torc Bearer / Tumulus / Wessex / Yamnaya
REMARKS Sometime after BC 3000, warriors of the Yamnaya
(Kurgan) culture passed through Bohemia, Czech. Not long
after the Unetice culture was born in the "Celtic Cradle".
The "Celtic Cradle" was the land mass between the Elbe and
the Rhine rivers stretching from the North Sea lowlands
into the highland surrounding the Danube of Germany and
Czech. The oldest site found so far is at the present-day
village of Prasklice and it is now believed that they
developed their own independent Bronze Age separate from
that in the Aegean.
Their highland territory was in the center of east-
west and north-south overland trade routes, providing
access to innovations of different regions. Because of
their location, the Unetice people were influenced by the
cultures of the Bell Beaker, Torc Bearer, Mycenaean and
Ligurian.
Between BC 1800-1200, well-armed highland herders of
the Unetice-Tumulus cultures began to appear in western
Europe. They spread the use of bronze and the use of
tumuli-covered graves from Bohemia to the Rhine north of
the Main, then into Switzerland, Belgium, Britain and
Ireland.
The Unetice culture depended largely on cattle and
farming as well as their metal-working. They also raised
goats, pigs and horses. Horses were used for riding as
well as for pulling wagons. Stone and wooden plows were
still being used, and hunting provided deer, boar and
rabbit. People fished with hooks, caught turtles and
collected mussels. Due to the use of the lost-wax process
for casting bronze, bee-keeping and the gathering of wild
honey became increasingly important, probably stimulating
mead production as well.
Villages were built on slopes and hilltops and
excavations in Slovakia have revealed that they were well-
designed with streets 8 ft (2.5 m) wide. Defences were
provided by wooden stake palisades and ditches. One
thermal spring had a wooden construction built over it.
Their dwellings, up to 33 ft (10 m) long, were of wood
and daub construction. Some dwellings were two-roomed with
one hearth while others were two-roomed with two hearths.
The hearth was pounded earth and the floor was of wood.
Inside walls were plastered and covered with geometric
designs and supported special shelves or niches for objets
d'art. It is believed that the houses may have been burnt
after the death of the occupants.
The art of the Unetice culture was of an abstracted
variety, as shown by clay animal figurines which could have
been toys or offerings. Some sculptures have been found
depicting humans wearing moon-shaped neckware.
The Unetice people buried their dead under round
barrows similar to those of the Goidel, Wessex and
Aremorican cultures. A number of tumuli have revealed
bodies buried in hollowed-out tree trunks. Some skeletons
wore amulets made from segments of skull. Cremated babies
have been found in some graves with adult skeletons.
Servants may have been sacrificed with their masters.
Animal offerings were present, as well as segments of their
homes. One male was buried with the heads of five oxen.
Some burials were in clay jars and others in graves,
covered with a tumulus. The bodies were covered with
powdered ochre and buried in small chests or 33 in (85 cm)
graves. This style of burial was found mostly in the Near
East during the early Bronze Age.
The Unetice developed the bronze flanged axes,
rivetted daggers and halberds decorated with geometric
patterns. Scabbards were made from leather, cloth and
decorated bronze. Their pins had holes, knot heads, rings
and clover-leaf designs. Jewelry also included gold
spirals, crescent pendants, basket-shaped earrings, and
beads. Massive copper torcs were worn around the neck.
Clay cups were produced with handles attached to the center
and base. They acquired Egyptian blue glass faience beads
and were in contact with the Mycenaean and Wessex cultures
as well as being involved in the amber trade.
The Unetice culture had a profound effect on Europe as
their goods were highly sought after during the early
Bronze Age. By BC 1500, the Unetice culture began to fade
and was dominated by or evolved into the Tumulus Culture.
NAME Urnfield
EVOLVED FROM Neolithic / Kurgan / Tumulus
COUNTRY Hungary / Romania / Czech / Slovakia / Germany /
Austria / France / Scotland / Belgium / Spain /
Netherlands / Italy / Yugoslavia / Poland /
Switzerland / Ireland
LANDMARKS Alps / Danube
SITES Kisapostag / Cirna / Val Camonica
AGE Copper / Bronze
DATES BC 3rd mill / BC 2000 / BC 15th-12th c /
BC 1100 / BC 9th c / BC 850 / BC 800-500
/ BC 800
DEITIES sun god
SIGNATURE Alpine stock / cremation urns / lost-wax process
/ honey bees / mead / timber-framed ramparts /
log houses / slings / sacrifices / miners /
bronze plow / bronze-rimmed spoked wheel
SEE ALSO Celtic / Etruscan / Hallstatt / Kurgan /
Neolithic / Tumulus
REMARKS During BC 3rd millenium, settlers of the Kurgan
culture arrived on the Balkan Peninsula and were a heavy
influence on the indigenous Neolithic hunter population.
Around BC 2000, the Urnfield culture began to develop
in the present-day area of Hungary-Romania. Two of the
oldest sites were at Kisapostag, Hungary and Cirna,
Romania. They were of the Alpine group and their culture
was named for the burial urns used to hold the ashes of
their cremated dead. The urns were then buried in flat
fields (no mounds) quite close to each other. Sometimes
the urns were placed in caves and sometimes they even
appear in grave sites that were used by other cultures who
buried their dead in different ways. They displayed sun
wheels and sun cult wagons and venerated the stag, boar and
the horse, symbolizing fire. The urns were made with the
use of the potter's wheel, which the Urnfield culture
popularized throughout Europe. They had a custom of
performing sacrifices at river fords.
The Urnfield people lived in rectangular houses
constructed of logs within hillforts or promontory forts
protected by timber-framed ramparts. These settlements
could hold populations of up to 350 people. Ammunition
dumps of sling-stones are often found at such sites.
The Urnfield people were miners of metals and salt, as
well as being traders and raiders. Their culture brought
the late Bronze Age to its height and developed bronze as
an industry. By BC 800, mining techniques and smelting by
charcoal were so developed that they could produce a pure
copper. Lead was being added to swords at 4-5% and 15% in
axes. Lead made casting easier and tin was becoming
scarce. The importance of the smith's role is shown by a
carving from Val Camonica in Italy which depicts a smith
wearing the feathered headdress of a shaman. Because the
lost-wax process was used in casting bronze, bee-keeping
was important. The gathering of wild honey and the
production and drinking of mead were by-products of this
activity.
In the area of weaponry, the Urnfield artisans
developed the rapier, tanged leaf swords, heavy slashing
swords, antennae-handled sword (late), better metal
shields, solid bronze armor, helmets with crests, and leg
guards. Socketed tools, curved knives, chisels, and a
heavy bronze axe-head facilitated carpentry. The quantity
of bronze razors found indicates a preference for shaving
and they produced bronze pins to keep their clothing in
place. High quality sheet bronze was developed for the
making of cauldrons and other equipment, and special bronze
knives were made for food preparation.
The Urnfield culture was also responsible for the
development of the bronze plow and a spoked wheel with a
bronze hub and rim. These, along with their superior
sickles, helped the progress of agriculture and
transportation. A sacrificial wagon model has been found
that shows one front wheel and three at the back. They
also made high quality decorative horse trappings.
From BC 15th-12th century, Bronze Age warriors from
the Tumulus-Urnfield cultures passed through the Balkan
Peninsula, crossed the strait of Bosporus and raided Syria,
Palestine and Egypt. They mixed with many cultures as they
travelled and were sometimes referred to the as the Sea
People.
After BC 1100, the Celtic Urnfield culture was a major
influence in Poland, Germany, Austria, Switzerland,
Belgium, Netherlands, Scotland, England, Ireland, France
and Italy (later in Spain/Portugal). The tribes that moved
into the Po Valley and Etruria were called the Villanovans
and formed the basis for the Etruscan culture.
The Urnfield-Hallstatt period from the 9th-7th century
was a transitional time when many cultures were changing
from bronze weapons to iron and adopting the chariot burial
as a funerary rite (BC 800-500 in Spain/Portugal). By BC
850 the true Hallstatt culture had been born in the Czech-
German highlands of the "Celtic Cradle".
NAME Wessex
EVOLVED FROM Goidel / Unetice / Tumulus
COUNTRY England
REGION Wiltshire
TERRITORY Wessex
AGE Bronze
DATES BC 1600-1500
SIGNATURE round barrows / Stonehenge / traders / faience
beads
SEE ALSO Aremorican / Celtic / Goidel / Mycenaean /
Tumulus / Unetice
REMARKS The Wessex culture seems to have developed from
the migration of Unetice-Tumulus herders who intermingled
with the Goidel in Britain.
The Wessex group buried their dead in round barrow
graves similar to the other Celtic Aremorican, Goidel and
Unetice cultures. Their territory had good farming and
they dominated the local agricultural people. Quantities
of tin and copper were available from Cornwall. They
imported gold and gold goods from Ireland.
Grave goods from Wessex include flanged axes,
triangular daggers, gold, amber, jet, faience beads copied
from the Egyptian which suggests trade with the eastern
Mediterranean, and objects which suggest export to the
Mycenaean. The Wessex people were involved in the
rebuilding of Stonehenge in its final form (phase III)
between BC 1600-1500.
NAME Yamnaya
ALTERNATIVE Luvian
EVOLVED FROM Neolithic / Kurgan
COUNTRY Russia / Turkey / Pakistan
LANDMARKS Volga / Don / Caspian Sea / Caucasus / Plateau
of Phrygia / Pamirs / Indus Valley
AGE Neolithic / Bronze / Iron
DATES BC 3000 / BC 2300 / BC 2000 / BC 1600
SIGNATURE Alpine stock / horses / chariots / cattle /
Vedic religion - Rig-Veda / zero
SEE ALSO Goidel / Harappan / Hittite / Kurgan / Neolithic
/ Unetice
REMARKS The Yamnaya were alpine warriors that developed
out of the Kurgan culture along the Volga and Don rivers of
southern Russia on the great plains north of the Caspian
Sea. They were of the Aryan language group, with tame
horses and semi-domesticated cattle. Women had a position
of equality within the tribe and were held in high esteem.
The leader of each family was also a priest.
In BC 3000, horse warriors of the Yamnaya culture left
their homeland on the Volga river north of the Caspian Sea,
crossed the Caucasus, spread through Turkey, over the
Strait of Bosporus into the Balkan Peninsula and westward
into Europe. The Yamnaya brought knowledge of bronze,
horses, cattle, solid wheels, the Aryan language and the
Vedic religion. One major cultural spinoff from their
advancement into Europe was the Unetice culture of Czech.
In BC 2300 warriors of the Yamnaya tribes who had
settled in the Caucasus Mountains used their fast-moving
spoked-wheel chariots to invade present-day Turkey and
Syria. The Yamnaya chariot warriors developed the
blitzkreig as a form of warfare. They settled the Plateau
of Phrygia and out of this culture came the children of the
sons of Iafeth. Out of these people came the Partholean,
Nemedians and the Goidel who later conquered Ireland. Also
from this conquest the Hittite Empire was established.
Around BC 2000, other tribes of Yamnaya chariot
warriors crossed the Pamirs and invaded the Indus valley of
Pakistan where they affected the Harappan culture. By BC
1600 Yamnaya chariot warriors with iron weapons conquered
the territory of the Indus valley, where they introduced
many hymns of the Rig-Veda from which Brahmanism was born.
Yamnaya Vedic scholars developed the concept of zero
sometime between BC 1500 and BC 1200.